Questions + Answers 

1.        What is an Inductive reasoning?

• Inductive reasoning is where the premises support the conclusion, but they do not entail it. It is usually based upon information coming from the senses (the order and complexity we observe with our eyes).  . 

2.        What is a Deductive reasoning?

• Reasoning which if we accept the premise (starting point) of an argument is true, therefore the conclusion must be true.  The premises of an argument do entail the conclusion, i.e. the conclusion is necessary e.g. 1+1=2..

3.        What is a A Posteriori Argument?

 An argument which starts with human experience then builds up evidence to lead to a probable conclusion

4.        What is a A Priori Argument?

The conclusion is the logical result of the premise.

5.      What is the Teleological argument?

•       Premise: The universe has order, purpose and reason.

•       Premise: The complexity of the universe shows evidence of design.

•       Premise: Such design implies a designer.

•       Conclusion: The designer of the universe is an omnipotent God.

6.        What name is it also known as?

The Teleological argument is also known as the Design Argument

7.        Name 3 supporters of the argument

Aquinas, Paley, Tennant, Swinburne.

8.        Name 3 critics of the argument

Hume, Darwin, Dawkins

9.        What type of argument is the Teleological Argument?

Inductive A posteriori

10.    Who is William Paley?

William Paley (1743 1805) English Anglican priest, Utilitarian philosopher, and author of influential works on Christianity, ethics, and science, among them the standard exposition in English natural theology of the teleological argument for the existence of God

11.    What is the Watch Analogy?

The 'watch analogy' from William Paley is an 'a posteriori' (based upon experience, as opposed to the use of logic) argument for the existence of God.  The argument makes use of an anaology as Paley compares a watch and the Earth/universe.

12.    Simplify the premise of this argument

The premise of the argument hinges upon the assumed premise that 'like causes resemble like effects'. Paley argues that if we were to come across an object, such as a watch on a beach, we would not assume that it had got there by chance since we would notice how complex it is and that its individual parts work together within the mechanisms of the watch. Paley likens this to the complexity of the world and argues that the world exhibits similar, if not suprior complexity. Therefore, we can infer, since like causes resemble like effects, and both the watch and the world show signs of complex and intelligent mechanisms, both have been designed by an 'intelligent designger'; the watch by humans and the world by God. Therefore, by this argument, Paley concludes that an intelligent God exists and this God created the world.

13.    What type of argument is this?

The 'watch analogy' from William Paley is an inductive and 'a posteriori' (based upon experience, as opposed to the use of logic) argument for the existence of God. 

14.    What is Design Quo Purpose?

Design Qua Purpose (design "in the sense of" purpose") It looks as if it has been constructed intentionally, with the purpose of supporting life, particularly intelligent human life

15.    What is the Eye Analogy?

Paley used the eye as an example of "intelligent design". He said that you can't have anything as wondrous as the human eye without a "designer". In other words God.

16.    What does the design of the eye tell us about God?

Paley infers from the design of Nature the benevolence of God and he believes this is best exemplified by the eye’s secondary features. The eye is not blatantly exposed upon the body, say located on the hands or something, but is instead within the bony skull and protected by an eyelid.

17.    

What does Swinburne suggest?

Swinburne suggests a design argument that begins with a number of observable features of the universe, including the anthropic coincidences. Swinburne also emphasizes the uniformity of the universe, both its uniformity over time, and the fact that the fundamental particles of the universe belong to a relatively few kinds (electrons, protonts, neutrons, photon, etc.), each of which is perfectly uniform with respect to physical character.

18.    What is the argument of Regularities of co-presence?

This refers to the tendency for things to turn up together in orderly patterns. An example of this in terms of intelligent agency is the roads in a town, which meet and intersect or cross each other with bridges; many meet at right angles or merge together at junctions.

19.    What is the argument of Regularities of succession?

This refers to orderly processes that operate the same way every time. In other words, the laws of nature. Most examples of order consist of both types of regularity. For example, a watch consists of regularities of co-presence (all the cogs and springs in the right position) and succession (the laws of physics which make it all work).

20.    How does this link to Paley analogy of the eye?

The eye consists of regularities of co-presence (all the parts being exactly how they need to be), there are the laws of biology and chemistry that make them work (regularities of succession)

21.    What s Swinburne's conclusion?

Swinburne's idea of regularities of succession points towards fine-tuning and the anthropic principle. The universe might so naturally have been chaotic, but it is not – it is very orderly - Richard Swinburne

22.    What type of argument is this?

Swinburne's idea of regularities builds an Inductive and a posterioori argument.

23.    Who is Tennant?

F. R. Tennant in 1930 developed three forms of the design argument:

·         The Strong Anthropic Principle

·         The Aesthetic Principle

·         The Weak Anthropic Principle.

In his 3 volume Philosophical Theology

24.    What is The Strong Anthropic Principle?

The Strong Anthropic Principle (The world is providentially designed and perfect for human life) claims that the entire universe is designed to produce human life one day. This means the conditions at the moment of the Big Bang must have been precisely set so that, 10 billion years later, our star would form and, 5 billion years after that, our species would evolve on the third planet orbiting that star - Earth.

25.    What is The Aesthetic Principle?

the Aesthetic Principle. (The world is so beautiful – it must have a designer) Tennant points out that we have the ability to perceive beauty. He claims there is no reason for the universe to be beautiful and no need (as far as evolution is concerned) for human beings to appreciate it - it doesn't help us survive. But beauty is there and we perceive it and this suggests a Designer who has arranged the universe to be, not just habitable, but beautiful too.

26.    What is The Weak Anthropic Principle?

The Weak Anthropic Principle (The world is designed perfectly to function – it is fine tuned): doesn't claim that the universe was designed for us specifically, only for creatures like us intelligent, self-aware beings with a sense of morality and a perception of beauty and a religious need to know God. These creatures didn't have to evolve on Earth - and indeed, other creatures like us may have evolved on other planets. These creatures don't have to look like us: they could be crab-people or Wookies or Clangers. But the universe is set up so that stars will form with planets around them and some of these planets will support life; once life appears, evolution will ensure that some of this life becomes intelligent and self-aware.

27.    What type of argument is this?

Tenant's ideas of providence, beauty, general fitness of intelligent life  builds an Inductive and a posterioori argument.

28.    Who is Hume?

David Hume, (1711-1776),  Scottish philosopher, historian, economist, and essayist known especially for his philosophical empiricism and scepticism of the design arguments.

29.    What is his argument called?

Hume addressed the Design Argument in his famous book, Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion (1779). The Dysteleologicall Argument

•       It argues that actually the universe is a POOR design

•       Presented BEFORE Paley

•       Three characters in dialog, Cleanthes, Demea and Philo

30.    How is his argument presented?

The book takes the form of a play, in which three characters debate religion.

31.    Why is it presented this way?

Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion (1779) was published after Hume's death, because attacking religious beliefs was considered a sensitive subject. It was framed as a dialogue perhaps so he could not be accused of directly attacking religious belief.

32.    Who are the characters?

·         DEMEA

·         CLEANTHES

·         PHILO

33.    What are their standpoints?

·         CLEANTHES supports natural religion (using a posteriori arguments to prove God's existence rather than appealing to the Bible) and puts forward the Design Argument

·         PHILO is a sceptic who argues against the Design Argument (but doesn't go so far as to say God doesn't exist)

·         DEMEA is the other character who offers a different support for religion but these views aren't important here

34.    What are Hume’s 7 Key arguments?

Hume presents 7 key arguments:

1. Analogies

2. Order & Design

3. Order is Necessary

4. Cause & Effect

5. Christian God

6. Multiple Gods

7. Experience

35.    

Explain Hume’s 7 key arguments one sentence each

1Analogies –Hume sets up a design argument-

P1   The world resembles a finely tuned machine

P2   All machines we know of are created by intelligence

C The world must also be caused by intelligence - but an intelligence greater than any human intelligence

However, he argues this is a POOR analogy and doesn’t work. There is very little similarity between the world and machines. Machines have been designed for a purpose, and have not come about naturally – this is a poor comparison to make with the world

2 Order & Design- Just because the world is ordered – this doesn’t mean there is a designer. It is a big leap to say order = design. We have nothing to compare this world to – or standards to judge it by. Perhaps there are other world which are much more ordered that would lead us to think that actually – there is very little order in our own

3. Order is Necessary- We need order to exist – it is necessary. If the world was random and chaotic then it wouldn’t survive. The features around us have happened by chance – they have survived as they were suited to their environment. Plenty have not – and have not survived. This is similar to Darwin's ideas – BUT he hadn’t suggested it yet!

4. Cause & Effect - hume asks why assume that every effect has a cause? Then why assume that there is a God? Cause and effect does not act as simply as this. E.g. Having her feet tickled causes Grace to laugh, Grace is laughing

Therefore someone must be ticking her feet,

5. Christian God- Even if we can assume there is a creator (which we cannot!) Who says it is a Christian God? How do we know this God is omnipotent / omnibenevolent / omniscient? This world could be one of many trial worlds – God could have stumbled upon it after many trials and errors

6. Multiple Gods- How do we know the world was made by just one God?

There could have been multiple Gods – a team! A committee of Gods working together!

7. Experience- The universe is unique – we cannot claim to know how it came into being as we have no experience in this. We do not know how worlds are usually made, or what degree of order to expect. With no experience we cannot draw firm conclusions

36.    What is Deism?

Deism is the philosophical position that rejects revelation as a source of religious knowledge and asserts that reason and observation of the natural world are sufficient to establish the existence of a Supreme Being or creator of the universe.

37.    What are the issues about God presented by the Teleological Argument?

For deists given that the universe is mostly empty or hostile to life, it suggests the Designer does not love his creation.

38.    How does Deism solve this?

The deist solution- is to believe in a non-interventionist God - a God who creates/designs the universe but then has nothing more to do with it; a God who does not answer prayers, does not send visions or prophecies, does not perform miracles.

39.    Who is Charles Darwin?

Charles Darwin, (1809 –1882) was an English naturalist, geologist and biologist, best known for his contributions to the science of evolution.

40.    What is the Theory of Evolution?

According to evolutionary theory, creatures develop complex characteristics because they are useful - whereas creatures with non-useful characteristics tend to die out.

41.    What type of argument is it?

An Inductive and a posterioori argument.

42.    How does it challenge the design argument?

It shows that just because something in nature looks designed, it doesn't mean it really is designed by an intelligent agent.

43.    What are the strengths of the argument?

Evolution has weakened a key premise, that design is always the product of an intelligent agent. Evolution shows this doesn't have to be true. Sometimes, the appearance of design comes about by chance.

44.    What are the weaknesses?

It is a scientific theory open to revision. Indeed it was replaced first by ne-Darwinism (Mandelson’s peas – to Dawkins slef Gene), which is being replaced by Epigenetics.

45.    Who is Richard Dawkins?

Richard Dawkins, (1941-present), is a British evolutionary biologist, ethologist, and popular-science writer who emphasized the gene as the driving force of evolution and generated significant controversy with his enthusiastic advocacy of atheism. Author of the selfish Gene and God Delusion.

46.    How does he use evolution to criticise the Teleological Argument?

Dawkins describes naturalistic explanations of complexity (like evolutionary theory) as "cranes" the lift things up "from below" and contrasts them with supernatural explanations (like God) which he calls "skyhooks" because they come down to do the work "from above".

47.    How does he use Memes to criticise the Teleological Argument?

Religions are ‘mind viruses’ that have developed over time. They have no benefit to humanity yet continue to exist

48.    How does he criticise Tennant?

•We would probably find the universe beautiful whatever it looked like: even if grass was purple and water was bright red and everything tasted of chalk, if it was what we had evolved around we would find it pleasant.

•Richard Dawkins finds the Aesthetic Principle "vacuous and wholly unconvincing".