BUDDHISM

A Level Religious Studies

Buddhist Teachings

The Buddha 2.1 

Introduction

For Buddhists the Buddha is their refuge to take along with his Dharma and Sangha.  The life of the Buddha its meaning and significance thus has ongoing importance for both Theravaada and Mahayana today.  For acadaemics interested in the study of Buddhism theu first ask the historical and critical questions about the religious and social context and then ask about the important teachings that his life exemplifies. You might call this the difference between the Buddha of history and the Buddha of faith.

The key events of his life that are of interest concern his birth, childhood, the four sights, life as an ascetic, search for Enlightenment, founding of the sangha, preaching, his death and parinibbana. These you should be able to offer critical comments on their religious significance and historicity.

In the study of Buddhism scholarship tries to identify where there is continuity and discontinuity in his teachings and practices through showing the possible links the Buddha had with a range of religious groupings at this time.  These groups for example practices sacrifices, set up caste systems, that stratified society into varying economic groupings. The time of the Buddha ‘the bronze age’ is thought by one historical school called ‘big history’ to be a hinge point and the Buddha a storm trooper usurping in religious changes. 

The Buddha was born into a royal family when society was changing from one types of authority a republic to a kingship and you need to understand and be able to assess all of this.  This topics key scholars Karen Armstrong and Bhikkhu Nanamoli and you should be able to quote them and assess their ideas.

You might watch this Introduction Video to the Life of The Buddha.

Topic         

Content

Key Knowledge

Topic 2 Sources of wisdom and authority

Unit 2.1

The life and work of the Buddha, its meaning and significance in its historical, religious and social context and the important teachings that his life exemplifies

·         The Links with a range of religious groupings at this time, including their beliefs and practice.

·         The religious setting of the Buddha’s life- The Brahmanism of his family, the sramana movement- ajakvakas, jains, materialists, Skeptics

·         The social setting- The caste system – the origins of the Brahmin religion in the Indus valley Civilisation, economic groupings and changes, types of authority and kingship.

·          The key events of his life.

·         The Buddhas- birth, childhood, the four sights, life as an ascetic, search for Enlightenment, founding of the sangha, preaching, his death and parinibbana.

You need to understand the issues raised by Buddhist teachings, including:

·         how the ‘historical’ Buddha and especially his teaching was a influenced by his social and religious setting.  

·         How the Theravada scholar Nanamoli attempt to retrieve the historical Buddha is itself a project is influenced by his Theravadva claims to originality and to what extent his is successful?  .

·         whether or not Buddhists agree on the significance of ethics of laity and ordained.

·         what is the relationship between the ethical guidancnce and ideas like karama

·         whether or not Buddhist ethics can be applied in the contemporary worlds to issues like the environment, equality, sexual ethics, war and pacifism, abortion and euthanasia.

·         What significant things P Harvey and B Bodhi and other relevant scholars have said about Buddhist ethics.

Key Words

Sasana Teaching

Siddhartha Gautama the Buddha's real name, Sanskrit

Siddatta Gotama the Buddha's real name, Pali

Suddhodana Buddha's father

Ontological a word used to refer to a debate about 'being'

Bodhisattva a Mahayana concept, literally meaning 'being whose essence is Enlightenment'

Jodo Shinshu Jodo Shinshu school of Japanese Buddhism that is usually called Pure Land Buddhism or Shin Buddhism

Mahayana literally, 'the greater vehicle' covering Northern schools of Buddhism in Tibet, China and Japan and more associated schools and traditions a study of religious ideas about personal salvation

Theravada literally, 'teachings of the elders' and forms much of the Southeast Asian schools of Buddhism in Sri Lanka, Thailand, Burma and Vietnam

Buddhacarita written by Ashvaghosa, it is an epic Sanskrit poem about the life of the Buddha

Jakata Buddhist tales, mainly about the previous livos of the Buddha

Cakravartin local ruler or King

Sambodhi full and complete Enlightenment

Tripitaka the Buddhist Canon of scripture

Unit 2.1 Life of the Buddha

The Ten Acts of the Buddha's life

The Buddha lived in northern India about 2500 years ago. some time between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE. The dates most commonly accepted for the Buddha are 563-483 BCE.

It is very difficult to establish for certain what the historical facts about the Buddha's life are. This is because there are virtually no archaeological remains in India from this period, and nothing was recorded in writing during his life time. It is therefore difficult to distinguish clearly between historical fact, later embellishments that are based on historical fact, and legends arising from faith that are not based on any tangible events. Biographies of the Buddha first appeared several hundred years after his death, when the story had become dramatised for the purpose of public storytelling. The oldest sources we have are the Theravada Buddhist scriptures or Pali Canon. However, they do not recount his life chronologically so Buddhists have developed a framework of Acts for the Buddha's life story in terms of Ten Acts. From an academic point of view, his life story is a blend of historical events and legend, and it is difficult to tell one from the other.

The Historical setting

Key ideas

·         Northern India was dominated by the Vedic culture of the Aryan people from 1500 BCE to the Buddha's day

·         Vedic society was hierarchical, with four classes, the lowest of which was excluded from religious activity

·         Politically, Vedic-inspired monarchies co-existed alongside democratic republics that were based on pre-Aryan traditions

Key words

Buddha – Siddhartha Gautama, founder of the Buddhist religion

Indus Valley – area in Northwest India and Pakistan where significant archaeological evidence has been discovered

Harappa – ancient city of the Indus Valley

Mohenjo- Daro – ancient city of the Indus Valley

Asharama – stage of life

Sadhui holy man, usually a homeless ascetic wanderer and teacher

Sannayasin holy man, usually a homeless ascetic wanderer and teacher

Moksha –Moksha escape, liberation or release from the cycle of birth, death and reincarnation

Bhakti – devotion

Aryan – a term used to define invaders from the West into the Indus Valley

Mukti– escape, liberation or release from the cycle of birth, death and reincarnation

At the time when Buddhism emerged, India had as much religious variety as it has today, although the religious mix was not the same. Modern India has a complex mixture of religious traditions, at times presenting a variety of world-views. Within these world-views is a wide variety of cultural and regional differences that produce a diversity of religious expression. At the time of the Buddha (born between 490 and 450 BCE and died between 410 and 370 BCE?), the religious and philosophical ideas were no less complicated. Although Christianity, Islam and Sikhism were not yet founded, there were other religious traditions and philosophies. Some of these do not exist in their original forms today. In short, there were very active and vibrant challenges, new questions raised and crucial philosophical and religious debates both within and between these groups.

The Buddha was born into the Hindu culture. Hinduism was originally a term used to identify the people of the Indus Valley. In this sense, it did not really describe a set of beliefs or practices. However, there have been developments in the meaning of the term Hinduism and these have incorporated later developments in Indian history, religion, culture and philosophy. For example, the Aryan invasion of the Indus Valley Civilisation, the development of Hindu philosophy, yoga and the Bhakti movement arc all part of Hindu history. Therefore, many attempts have been made to define what Hinduism is today in trying to appreciate both what it may have originally been and how it has evolved.

At the time of the Buddha, the Hindu culture appears to have contained elements of Hinduism that still prevail today such as social structuring, core religious values, the expectations that come with each of the stages (Astramas) of life, and, the four aims of life. In particular, we see the specific roles of what are today known as Sadhus or sannyasin (holy men), the existence of a priestly social strata, and the goal of life as an escape (Moksha, Muti) as reflected by the last stage of Hindu life as the Sannyasin. These social and religious parameters are what the Buddha worked within and in particular, his experience of becoming a wandering holy man developed into the tradition of 'going forth' and 'homelessness' in later Buddhism.

The Social setting

Key ideas

·         The social structure was rigid and unable to accommodate the new economic developments in the Buddha's time

·         The caste system was being challenged both explicitly by the warriors and by new economic developments.

Key Words

Vedas the earliest Hindu scriptures

Varna the caste you are born into

Jati  a sub-division of varna, based upon 'birth' into a specific group

Dharma eternal law in Hinduism, or, social duty

Brahmin  holy priestly social group at the top of the caste system

Kshatriya warrior social group

Enlightenment also referred to as Awakening, nibbana or nirvana it refors to the Buddha's moment of realisation of the truth

Rhishi  religious seer associated with the Vedas

Muni a religious / holy man

Four sights the four things that initiated Siddhartha's quest for Enlightenment

To the north-east of India, in the area surrounding the Ganges Basin, is the area where the Buddha, was active. At the time that Buddhism emerged there were also major social changes taking place. One of the most significant changes was the growing opposition to the traditional caste system in India. In order to look at the traditional caste system it is important to understand its possible origins in the Indus Valley Civilisation and the influence of the subsequent Aryan Invasion.

There is evidence of an advanced civilisation in the Indus Valley and Ganges basin that reached maturity about 2000 years before the time that Buddhism emerged. Two main cities, and, which are famous archaeological discoveries of the last century, provide enough evidence to suggest the "presence of a primitive water system, possibly including drainage and sewers, and also baths, stone buildings and artefacts of religious significance. It has been suggested that temple worship and meditation can be traced back to the Indus Valley; however, an invasion from the West began in around 1500 BCE, just as the Indus Valley Civilisation was declining. The Aryan invaders, as they were called, brought with them a society based heavily upon strict religious structures under the control of a priestly group.

The religious writings of these invaders include the earliest of Hindu scriptures, the Vedas, and these are often associated with a class system that has, over the years, increased in complexity and developed into what is referred to as the caste (Varna) system and later sub-divided into the birth (Jati) system in India. Although it is now officially illegal to discriminate on grounds of caste or birth, at the time that Buddhism emerged, a basic caste system was in place. In Hinduism, the word Dharma has several levels of meaning. It can represent the religious and eternal law, it is mostly understood as social duty, but also can be used generally to mean teaching. An individual's personal duty is to follow the family code of religious and social practice. It is determined by their social classification and also their birth or the caste to which the family belongs. The Buddha was part of this social system.

It is in the Hindu scripture known as the Rig-Veda that we find details of the caste system. Basically, the system comprises four social categories:

Brahmin or priest

Kshatriya or warrior

• Vaisya or merchant, professional or skilled worker

• Sudra or labourer, unskilled.

The first three are deemed twice-born because they undergo a second spiritual rebirth when they take the sacred thread ceremony, one of the crucial rites of passage for a Hindu. The unskilled of society, however, are not twice-born and so cannot study the Vedas. At the time that Buddhism emerged, this system would have been both insular and exclusive and it would have been very difficult for people to change their circumstances in life. The top two categories had complementary roles. Warriors were the rulers, responsible for good order in society. To maintain this order, sacrifices were necessary. These were performed by the priests but paid for by the warriors. Priests also depended on the rulers for their material support.

 “This pair of emplementary roles, patron and functionary, became the model for a wide range of social arrangements in traditional India”. (Gombrich) Key quote

The Buddha himself is thought to have belonged to the ruling class of warriors (Kshatriya), from the Shakya peoples who were based around the Kapilavatthu area of modern-day Nepal.

By ideology, of course, the Kshatriya ranks second, beneath the Brahmin. Yet he is the man with the real physical power, on whom even the Brahmin depends for his safety and physical welfare. The relations between Brahmin and Ksatriya have always been somewhat ambiguous (Gombrich) Key quote

The Brahmins (priests) were at the top of this class system and led the people in the traditions of worship and social order. However, it was always the duty of the Kshatriya (warrior) class to fight for justice and protect the people in practical ways. Over a period of time and in the face of poverty, disease, and neglect, the Kshatriyas challenged the authority and influence of the Brahmins. During the time that Buddhism emerged, the tension between Brahmins and Kshatriyas was heightened. It was at this time there is evidence of the emergence of a Samana. (Shramana Sanskrit) movement that rejected the formalities of temple worship for a more ascetic lifestyle; this brought a fresh challenge to Brahmins and there is evidence from Hindu writings that even the kings were trying to introduce the Brahmins to new and challenging religious ideas. This tension reflected struggle of minds, and it is no coincidence that the Buddha, as a Kshatriya, rejected the class system and the religious authority of the Brahmins.

Economic developments

Economic developments had begun to destabilise the brahminical order. The introduction of iron plough shares and other tools produced agricultural surpluses that led to prosperity and strong trade. The period is characterised by the growth of large towns and the first use of money. One of the effects of these changes was the creation of new professions, such as state officials and traders, which had no place in the ancient class system. As Richard Gombrich writes in Theravada Buddhism (Routledge, 1988), 'in the Buddha's day the dominant strata of urban society were not catered for, not even recognized, by brahminism'. So it is not surprising that evidence has been found that the Buddha's message appealed particularly to town dwellers and the new social classes.

Gombrich makes two further points about the impact of urban development on Buddhism.

First, it is possible that the high population densities of the new towns made illness and death seem more prevalent and widespread than they would seem in a small village. This may be one reason behind the Buddha's experience of the Four Signs, and may also explain why his teachings on suffering, illness and death in the Four Noble Truths became so acceptable to people.

Second, the large populations of towns and cities became crucial to the economic development of monastic communities. Monks and nuns depend on ordinary householders for their food and material needs, and small villages would not have been capable of sustaining monastic groups of any size. It can therefore be argued that urban development was a precondition for the growth of Buddhist monasteries.

Not all scholars agree with Gombrich. Some argue, for example, that suffering, disease and death have always been present in human society and there is no good reason to suppose that economic conditions made the Buddha's teachings more relevant in his day than they would be in any other place and at any other time. Other thinkers do not see the need to emphasise socioeconomic factors to explain what is, they say, a universally applicable religion.

Ashrama (stages of life)

In addition to the social organisation, there was a common acknowledgement of values or expectations in life. As well as doing one's duty in life according to one's social standing there was a general recognition that there were certain marked stages during one's life. The first three are traditionally seen as student, householder and forest dweller (or retirement) and these three stages incorporated the ideal picture of Indian life as learning, rearing a family and then a move into semi-retirement from family life to engage in spiritual matters.

For a few, the fourth stage of life was an aspiration but involved a total break from family and a new spiritual rebirth into a life of homelessness. The fourth stage was a radical break from the social and religious structure of the first three stages. It has been argued that the fourth stage of life was already present in the Vedic age (1500-500 BeE) although the term Muni (holy man, sage) is used more than sannyasin or sadhu and is sometimes seen as linked with the ancient Hindu concept of Rishi (religious seer) associated with Vedic literature. It is also interesting that the Buddha is also known as (the sage from Shakya; Shakyamuni Pali). We shall see later in the narratives about the Buddha's birth, the four sights and his enlightenment experience, just how significant these ideas were.

Questions: On the social and historical setting

1.    Explain the different dates for when was the Buddha born and when did he die and reasons for them?

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2.    What significance of the Indus Valley Civilisation for understanding Buddhism?

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3.    Explain how the stories of the Buddha are complicated.

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4.    Explain the caste system and its importance and significance in understanding Buddhism?

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5.    Explain the stages of life or ashramas and its importance and significance in understanding Buddhism?

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The Religious Setting

Key Ideas

·         During the Axial Age, between 800 and 200 BCE, India saw many movements away from orthodox Vedic religion

·         Some movements accepted the Vedas with modifications and became present-day Hinduism

·         Other movements, especially Jainism and Buddhism, rejected the Vedas The Buddha reinterpreted ideas from the Upanishads, the shramana movement and local folk religions

·         All three of India's native religions took birth around the 6th to 4th centuries BCE, and despite their differences they share significant common ground

Key words

Axial Age – a contested theory of history adopted by Armstrong to explain the significance of the Buddha in ‘teleological’ terms that historical naturalists would reject.

Brahmanism – is an ideology and a way of life, originating from the history of the Vedas, often called a philosophy, practised on the basis of specific inferred beliefs.  -

Atman Soul

Brahman universal spirit or ultimate spirit in Hinduism

Reincarnation the soul transmigration into a new life form atter death

Shakayamuni a term used of the Buddha predominantly by Mahayana Buddhists meaning 'the sage from Shakya'

samsara the cycle of life, death and reincarnation

Ajivakas early Samana group, not existing today - key idea was destiny

Ahimsa non-violence

Jains early Samana group, still a religion today - key idea was nonviolence.

Skeptics early Samana group that

Jiva life principle taught by the Jains

karma 'action' that has a consequence, sometimes referred to as the 'law of karma'

Materialists early Samana group that rejected the supernatural

Skeptics early Samana group that questioned everything

Sramana – Sramana was an ancient Indian religious movement with origins in the Vedic religion. · Śramaṇa means "one who labours, toils, or exerts themselves" or "seeker, one who performs acts of austerity, ascetic". in early Vedic literature is predominantly used as an epithet for the Rishis with reference to Shrama associated with the ritualistic exertion.

Sramana Movement –The Sramana movement developed into a Non-Vedic splinter groups parallel to Vedic Hinduism in ancient India. By the time of the Buddha the Shramana tradition had given rise to Jainism, the Ājīvika (determinists who rejected vedic philosophy), Materialists and eventually Buddhism

Samana wandenng philosophers and religious teachers, sometimes ascetic and sometimes in groups

Samana the Hindu system of social grouping

Yoga from the Sanskrit 'yukta' meaning 'Joined' and refers to a form of meditation in Hinduism that aims for unity with the universal spirit

Niyati the idea that everything is predetermined, destiny

Empiricists reality and existence do not extend beyond our five senses and anything beyond is rejected due to lack of evidence

The Axial Age?

During the period of the Buddha many scholars such as Armstrong argue there occurred possibly the most profound and widespread intellectual and spiritual transformation in history. Many people in different corners of the earth, from Europe to China, had come to find that the spiritual practices of their ancestors were no longer working for them. An extraordinary number of geniuses made supreme efforts to find a solution that would meet people's needs, and the result is that all the religions of the world as we know it today took root during this time. This is why the period that extends from about 800 to 200 BCE is called the Axial Age, an axis or turning point in the development of human history. And this new movement was already present in India before the Buddha.

Key quote

Between the 7th and 5th centuries BCE, the intellectual life of India was in ferment. The Axial Age saw the great Hebrew prophets of Judaism between the 8th to 6th centuries; in China it saw Confucius in the 6th century and Lao Tzu in the 5th century who respectively gave birth to Confucianism and Taoism; in 6th century Iran it saw the sage Zoroaster and the development of Zoroastrianism, and in ancient Greece it saw Socrates and Plato in the 5th to 4th centuries from whose thought the whole of European philosophy emerged as well as important aspects of Christian thinking. Meanwhile, in India, the writing of the Upanishads from the 7th century onwards proved the cornerstone of modern

Hinduism. It was also during this period, in the 6th and 5th centuries, that Mahavira gave birth to Jainism and Shakyamuni Buddha gave birth to Buddhism. (Ainslie T. Embree, Sources of Indian Tradition, Columbia University Press, 1988)

Brahmanism

The principal expression of Hinduism from the time of the Buddha is often referred to as Brahminism, in other words, the religion officiated by the Brahmin caste, and as a child of a local leader (Kshatriya) the Buddha would have been very familiar with the religious ideas of Brahminism. Brahminism was based on both written holy books and complicated rituals. These holy books (Vedas) were used to guide and give instructions for the performance of sacrificial rites that involved animals, and where the role of the Brahmin or priest was vital. It was believed that prayers offered during the performance of the sacrifice satisfied the gods, so achieving the underlying purpose of retaining order in the Universe.

Meditation was also a feature of Brahminism. At first, meditation was a preparation for the sacrifice. As Brahminism developed, meditation became a substitute for the sacrifice and was used as a means of mental focus or internalisation. The idea of the Brahman, the universal spirit, and the atman (atta Pali) the individual soul, became dominant in later Indian thought, as did the notion of a contextua1 round or cycle of reincarnation, known as samsara. The goal of practising religion was to advance through complex rituals and through meditation to achieve liberation from this round of reincarnation. It was believed that the soul then became united with Brahman.

Finally, in Brahminism there is the basic idea of Karma (kamma Pali) as developed in later Indian thought. Although early Brahminism taught that all areas of spiritual influence were restricted to religious ritual. it later embraced the idea that actions or karma beyond the sacrifice affected the reincarnation of the individual soul.

As we have seen, there emerged from the growing religious tensions of the day several contemporary religious groups known as Samanas who rejected the religion of the Brahmins. They formed groups of wandering holy men or philosophers who were trying to find answers to ultimate questions. There are several examples of different types of Samanas, including Jains, Ajivakas, Materialists and Skeptics. A summary of their beliefs and practices will help gain some insight into the Buddha's cultural and religious environment.

Samanas rejected the religion of the Brahmins because they disliked the social elitism and the idea of ritual sacrifice. Like the modern-day Hindu sannyasin or sadhu, they cut all family ties and were dependent upon the general public for their food. Samanas were usually ascetic and practised very advanced forms of meditation, having little sleep and very little, is often stated that Buddhism was originally a Samana movement.

One Samana group was Jainism Vardhama, the Mahavira or Great hero. was the first person to practise Jainism as an official philosophy and is often acknowledged as its founder. Jain teaching accepted reincarnation and the idea of samsara but disagreed with traditional views on escaping the cycle of samsara. Crucial to this difference was its notion of karma. Instead of the atman or Soul, Jains believed in the in the existence of a life essence called Jiva. This is like an internal spark, energy or essence that runs through all living matter. This Jiva, however is encased by karma that accumulates and leads to further reincarnation. The aim of the Jain practioner is to free the jiva from the cycle of samsara by following ascetic lifestyle involving yoga and guided by the principle of non-violence (ahimsa) towards any living thing.

The Buddha was a member of a distinct social group in the Indian religious scene. He was a renouncer, who had 'gone forth from home to homelessness' seeking to know the liberating truth. His life was outside that of the married householder, with his or her social duties within the village or town. He was himself, therefore, a member of the group known as the sramanas, the dropouts. Williams Key quote

In addition, they aimed to wipe out any possible new karma, through a policy of non-action, and to wait for all previous karmic effects to take their course and die away.

The infinite modifications of any given substance such as a soul are fixed in a sequential order which cannot be altered . Jaini Key quote

Makkhali Gosala was the famous leader associated with the Samana movement known as the Ajivakas, although there are other leaders identified in Buddhist writings. Gosala's major disagreement with other religious groups of the time was his outright rejection of niyati the idea of karma. Instead, he replaced it with the idea of or destiny. Every soul has its own uniquely prescribed path that is already set out. Even the number of  reincarnations has already been calculated. Therefore, the idea of karma becomes redundant and transformed into an early concept of philosophical determinism. In practice, the Ajivakas were similar to the Jains in that they also lived a life of strict discipline, even to the extreme of self-harming and starvation.

Early Buddhist writings identity two more influential groups that need to be considered briefly. The first of these were the Materialists. The Materialists, along with the other Samanas, rejected Brahminism. They did this not only because of dogmatic differences but because they regarded religious ritual as unscientific. Indeed, Materialists were empiricists and they rejected any ideas that were based upon non-empirical evidence that, they felt, could not be tested. These ideas included karma, reincarnation and the idea of a soul. The main practice of a Materialist was to celebrate life, and, although this can be done in many ways, they were generally encouraged to follow a noble and moral path.

Another group of Samanas was the Skeptics or 'eel-wrigglers', as Peter Harvey describes them. The Skeptics did not have any particular teaching or practice. Instead they constantly weighed things up and seemed reluctant to reach conclusions. Despite arguing against the views and theories of others, they remained devil's advocates at all times, without commitment to any particular position.

It is an error to think of a pure Buddhism, which has become syncretistically mixed with other religions, even corrupted and degenerate in larger forms. Such a pure Buddhism has never existed. Buddhism has always coexisted with other religious beliefs and practices. (Cousins) Key quote

With regard to the background against which Buddhism emerged, there were common areas shared by all religious groups and also common areas shared with some religious groups; some religious ideas were rejected; and, some religious ideas were developed and modified. There were also new religious ideas, some of which were exclusive to the Buddha and which he introduced to India.

A renunciate was, indeed still is in the modern lndian world, in social terms 'dead', a walking corpse. (Williams)

My admiration is for the Buddha, whom I consider to be one of the greatest thinkers - and greatest personalities - of whom we have record in human history. Ranking people in an order of merit is a pursuit fit only for parlour games, but I maintain that the Buddha belongs in the same class as Plato and Aristotle, the giants who created the tradition of Western philosophy. I think that his ideas should form part of the education of every child, the world over, and that this would help to make the world a more civilised place, both gentler and more intelligent. (Williams) Key quote

Folk religions

Alongside these trends, the ancient folk religions of India continued, especially at the village level. These involved beliefs in local nature spirits and demons. Folk religions had various magical practices, such as fortune-telling, palmistry, prophecies, charms and spells, propitiating spirits of various kinds and the interpretation of dreams. These practices were accessible to ordinary people and, before the Buddha's time, some of them had begun to be appropriated by the Brahmin priests and incorporated into the Vedic religion.

It was the ordinary village people following these religions who, probably around the time of the Buddha, began to portray Brahman as the one creator God who cares for us all. In those Upanishads composed before the Buddha, Brahman is the supreme reality and seen as impersonal. It is therefore possible that the idea of Brahman as it evolved in Hinduism originated from pre-Aryan folk religion. The personal form of Brahman was given the name Brahma.

What did the Buddha reject or adopt?

For Buddhists. the Buddha was concerned with teaching a truth that is universal and timeless, not merely a truth that is bounded by history and context. But it is useful to identify what the Buddha rejected from the society and religion of his time, and to consider what he adapted from them, so that we can see more clearly what was new and radical about his teaching.

Rejected concepts

• The Buddha rejected the authority of the Vedic scriptures.

• He rejected animal sacrifice.

• He rejected the use of intoxicants such as soma because they disturb mental clarity and control.

• He refused to follow the class system. Although he was born into the kingly or kshatriya class, he decided to lead a religious life that was not the prescribed activity of his class. The story of Sunita illustrates that he accepted the lowest social outcasts as his followers. He argued that it is how a person thinks and behaves that really counts, not his or her social status.

• He rejected the hierarchical structures of Aryan society.

• He rejected extreme asceticism. After experiencing it first hand, he found it did not lead to personal liberation.

• He rejected any religion or philosophy that undermines morality. He taught that there is a law of moral causation, and that good deeds do make a difference: we can change our future.

• He rejected materialism on the grounds that it renders life meaningless and morality pointless.

• He taught the doctrine of rebirth.

• He rejected scepticism. He called sceptics or doubters 'eel-wrigglers'. They sit on the fence and never follow their wisdom, which implies that they cannot act on decisions they have not taken. Their approach leads to an impasse.

• He rejected the solitary aspect of the life of an ascetic, and advised his monks always to live in groups and communities. He found that living alone for long periods can sometimes have a detrimental effect on the mind.

• The Buddha rejected the ideas of Brahman and atman, as found in the Upanishads, on the grounds that there is no empirical evidence or logical reason that proves their existence.

Accepted and reinterpreted concepts

·         The Buddha accepted the idea that we are born again and again, which was introduced in the Upanishads and taught by various ascetic groups. However, his doctrine of rebirth is a complete reinterpretation of the idea and develops it in greater detail.

·         The Buddha accepted the law of kamma or moral causation, which was introduced in the Upanishads and also taught by some shramanas, but he was the only teacher to separate moral action and social duty and to ethicise the concept. His explanation of how kamma works is more detailed than in any other religion.

Kamma in Pali (karma in Sanskrit) means 'action', and in Indian religions refers to the law of cause and effect that determines the moral results of our actions. The general rule is that if we do good deeds we will be happy, and if we commit harmful deeds we will suffer for them. The key difference between Buddhist and Jain ideas on kamma is that for Jains it is the action itself that is good or bad and that determines the karmic result, whereas for Buddhists the emphasis is placed on whether the intention or motivation behind the action is good or bad. In Buddhism, actions are defined as harmful if they are motivated by craving, aggression, pride, jealousy or ignorance.

·         The Buddha accepted the general Indian idea that suffering is related to ignorance, and that the goal of religion is to free ourselves from both of these. This idea is also developed in the Upanishads and in Jainism.

·         He accepted the Upanishadic move towards a personal religion, concerned with working on a person's own mind and emotions.

·         He tolerated folk religions but devalued their importance. Brahma, spirits and so on are seen to exist, but are not as powerful as folk religions would have us believe, because they cannot help liberate us from suffering. Monks were forbidden to engage in spells and charms, but lay people could do so if they wished. From its beginnings until today, Buddhism has happily coexisted with folk beliefs in every country to which it has spread.

·         The Buddha was inspired by the democratic model of social organisation developed by the north Indian republics, and adapted this in his monastic communities.

·         It is important to note that, although the Buddha rejected many of the social and political values of his day (class, hierarchy and so on), he never took up a political position, nor did he advocate political opposition. He never sought confrontation. On the contrary, the Buddhist approach is to respect the laws of the country where one lives and, if any laws are considered unjust, to oppose them non-violently.

Questions: on the religious setting

1.    What is meant by the Axial age and what are some of the difficulties of the theory??

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2.    In what way does Armstrong and other Axial age theorists think the Buddha was an Key Axial age thinker?.

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3.    Explain how Monastic morality differs from ay morality for Theravada Buddhists.

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4.    What is Brahaminism and why is it important in explaining Buddhism?

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5.    Explain who were the Samanas and why are they important in understanding Buddhism?

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6.    Explain what the Buddha rejected?

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7.    Explain what the Buddha accepted?

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The ways in which Buddhists read the narratives of the birth of the historical Buddha and the Four Sights

Key Ideas

·         During the

Key words

 Maya Buddha's mother

Kapilavastu place where the Buddha grew up

Lumbini the place of the Buddha's birth

Dharma Buddhist teaching, Dhamma in Pali

Hagiography a religious biography as opposed to a historical biography

Myth fanciful stories to express a teaching

Shaya region where the Buddha was born

Sammasambuddha self-enlightened one

Who was the Buddha? His real historical name was Siddartha Gautama (Siddhatta Gotama pali) and he was born in what is now Southern Nepal in the Himalayan region. Very little is known about the historical details other than the details that can be carefully extracted from later texts, legends and stories about him. He was of noble birth, probably to a regional or local clan leader but a 'prince' is possibly an exaggeration. His father's name was and his mother's name Maya. They lived in a place called Kapilavastu in the Shakya region although had moved there after the Gautama's birth in Lumbini.

Hagiography and myth

In Buddhism, the quest for the historical Buddha has never been a major pursuit. For example, Paul Williams has stated: 'It is only self-evidently appropriate to start the study of a religion with the life-story of its founder if we hold that the life-story of the founder is in some sense a crucial preliminary to understanding what follows. That is, in the case of Buddhism, if it were true that we could not understand the Dharma without first understanding the life-story of the Buddha.'

For Williams, it is not the person of the Buddha, that is the historical Buddha, that is of significance, but rather what the Buddha discovered. It is the sasana (teaching) or the Dharma that are the reason the life of the Buddha has any significance at all. Gautama was a sammasambuddha (fully self-enlightened or universal Buddha) and the highest form of Buddhahood; a sammasambuddha discovers Enlightenment; that is, the Dharma and then establishes the sasana and community in the world. This is in contrast to a pratyeka (pacceka Pali) Buddha who discovers the Dharma but does not establish the sasana or the Buddhist community in the world.

For Williams, the study of Buddhism involves the study of Buddhist thought rather than a study of the historical Buddha; as such, the life-story of the Buddha becomes a hagiography (religious biography). The specific purpose of a hagiography is to illustrate that if the person was who we think he was, then what they were is an exemplification of what they represent - 'exemplary truth' as Williams calls it and in this way the scriptures unashamedly become idealistic documents.

Williams writes: 'For what we find when we look at the life-story of the Buddha is not a historical narrative but a hagiography, and it is as a hagiography that one should read the life-story ofthe Buddha ... Within this perspective, the interests of veridical historical narrative are sometimes not seen, and are always subordinate.' Any elements of Myth (stories that have questionable or dubious historical accuracy and often involve the supernatural) serve only to enhance William's argument and if this is at the expense of historical fact, the response would be 'then so be it'. Seen in this way, the Buddha, hagiographically, is not a person at all but more. of a principle. As the Vakkali Sutta states: 'Who sees the Dhamma, sees me, and who sees me, sees the Dhamma.' In other words, the Buddha and the Dharma are the same.

Whilst there is some historical evidence for the existence of the Buddha, the narrative, which itself is compiled from fragments formed in numerous texts, is a meaningful rather than an historical accounts. (Educas Guidance for teaching) Key quote

Whether the Buddhas arise or not the Dhamma exists from all eternity. Narada Thera. ·Key quotes

The Buddha, as we have seen, attained liberation himself and re-established the sasana, the Teaching. If it could be shown for certain by some clever scholar that the Buddha never existed that need not, as such, have dramatic repercussions for Buddhists. For patently the sasana exists, and the sasana is the sasana, it articulates objective truth 'whether Buddhas occur or do not occur'. The effectiveness of the Dharma does not in itself depend on its discovery by a Buddha. (Williams)

The relative disinterest in biographical detail can be seen in the following two extracts written by scholars in defining the Buddha and Buddhism.

Paul Williams (Buddhist Thought):

The Buddha (Sanskrit/Pali: 'Awakened One') is thought by Buddhists to be one who has awakened fully to the final truth of things, and thus freed, liberated, himself once and for all from all forms of suffering. He is also one who, out of supreme compassion, has taught others the way to attain liberation themselves. Buddhas are not born that way, and they are certainly not thought to be eternal gods (or God). Once (many lifetimes ago) they were just like you and me. They strove through their own efforts, and became Buddhas. A Buddha is superior to the rest of us because he 'knows it how it is'. We, on the other hand, wallow in confusion, in ignorance (Sanskrit: avidya; Pali: avilla). Thus we are unhappy and suffer.'

Richard Gombrich (Theravada Buddhism)

'For Buddhists, religion is purely a matter of understanding and practising the Dhamma [Sanskrit: Dharma], understanding and practice which constitute progress towards salvation. They conceive salvation - or liberation, to use a more Indian term - as the total eradication of greed, hatred and delusion. To attain it is open to any human being, and it is ultimately the only thing worth attaining, for it is the only happiness which is not transient. A person who has attained it will live on so long as his body keeps going, but thereafter not be reborn. Thus he will never have to suffer or die again. For Buddhists, religion is what is relevant to this quest for salvation, and nothing else.'

From reading the above extracts it can be seen that the emphasis is not on the personal details of the historical teacher Siddhartha Gautama but rather a focus on his experience and achievement. In other words, it was not who Gautama was but more what he represents and that is our potential as human beings to achieve Enlightenment through following the Dharma. Unlike the Hindu avatar of Krishna or the Christian incarnation of Jesus in Christianity, the 'ontological status' of the Buddha does not point to himself as the answer but to something else - the Dharma.

Key quote

There are shrines with statues of the Buddha ... a way of paying homage to the memory of the Master who showed the way. These traditional observances, though inessential, have their value in satisfying the religious emotions and needs of those who are less advanced intellectually and spiritually, and helping them gradually along the Path. (Walpula Rahulla)

The Buddha, then, is not divine or some supreme being to worship; the Buddha's status is directly related to our own inner potential and our own 'greatness'.

Many Theravada Buddhists just see the Buddha as a human being but a talented religious teacher who reached Enlightenment. Even in later Mahayana Buddhism and the Jodo Shinshu school, or in the case of the countless Bodhisttvas of Mahayana Buddhism in general, we do not have the concept of divinity but merely very spiritually advanced beings whose aim is to assist us in reaching our true potential. Likewise, the historical Buddha is significant not because he tells us something about himself but more because he tells us something about both the world around us, and ourselves, that will enable us to reach our spiritual potential. Richard Gombrich in Theravada Buddhism coined the term soteriology to describe Buddhism; that is, its focus is not on personal trust in some ultimate other or being but that which is relevant to this quest for personal salvation.

Key quote

The proper Buddhist place to start the study of Buddhism, therefore, is not the life-story of the Buddha at all but through outlining straight away the Dharma, the practice of which leads to liberation without further ado. The life-story of the Buddha becomes important subsequently as a teaching aid, for showing how it is that the teachings have the validity they do possess - that is, for engendering confidence in the effectiveness of the teachings – and for illustrating themes of the teachings themselves. As one might expect, the Buddha is subordinate to the Dharma, for it is not the Buddha who brings about the enlightenment of his followers, but following the Dharma. (Williams)

Williams has raised a very important issue for Buddhist studies in that when Buddhists read the life-story of the Buddha it is with a view to learning not about the Buddha himself but more about trying to see how his life can help exemplify the Dharma.

Related to this issue, it is interesting to appreciate the history of our understanding of the Buddha. Donald S. Lopez Jnr in his recent book From Stone to Flesh has explored this. His findings are that the original understanding of the Buddha was very much driven by a Western idea of an idol for worship, what Lopez refers to as a 'sinister twist'. That is, the Buddha was originally viewed as some form of deity and seen through the multi-cultural and diverse legends that emerged many years after Gautama's death.

This was even true of Asian Buddhists, who not being able to read Buddhist texts 'knew the life of the Buddha through the stories they heard from monks and the painting and statues that they saw in temples'. Such stories varied widely and according to Lopez the 'sources in Buddhisttexts and traditions are not always easy to discern'. One tradition from the Malay Peninsula portrayed the Buddha as Shaka, a teacher, spiritually conceived to teach humanity. After rejecting the extremes of the world, Shaka taught a life of perfection and the worship of one single God that was Creator and had three heads. Shaka himself died and was cremated in a marble tomb only to reappear in the air, hovering above a cloud, and then ascended to heaven!

The more Lopez delves into the stories and legends of the Buddha from around Asia during the 16th and 17th centuries, even in Siam (Thailand), the more it is apparent that there were 'garbled versions of the life of the Buddha' in circulation.

It is only relatively recently in history, beginning in 1837 with the pioneering work of Eugene Burnouf, a Sanskrit scholar, that we see the first translations of Buddhist texts that would give more insight into the historical Buddha and his teachings. Burnouts work had major impact and influence on others, in particular his pupil Max Muller who was himself to become a great scholar and translator of Hindu and Buddhist Sanskrit texts into German and English.

Today, the early garbled legends described by Lopez have given way to more 'historical' versions that can be traced more faithfully to Buddhist texts. The translation of Pali texts from Siam and Ceylon (Sri Lanka) that were understood to be less mythological were also translated to glean even more valuable insight. In particular by Herman Oldenburg the most influential German Buddhist scholar of the 19th century. For many, the Pali texts had arrived at the most sober and human portrayal ofthe Buddha.

Today the Buddha is seen as essentially a human being but viewed differently by the various Buddhist traditions in terms of how the mythical element is understood; however, one thing that is certain is that priority in all traditions for Buddhists is given over to the hagiographical reading of the Buddha's life that expresses truths revealed for all.

Key quotes

Before the nineteenth century, there was a Buddha who was revered in Asia and a Buddha that was reviled in the West. Today, there is a single Buddha, beloved hy both worlds. (Lopez)

After centuries of seeing the Buddha as an idol, something remarkable occurred in the nineteenth century. European scholars began to gain the ability to read Buddhist texts in

their original languages, and with a certain degree of accuracy. From this process a new Buddha was horn, the Buddha that we know today. (Lopez)

Bouddhou is superior to all the gods, he is, however, not what we mean by a god, being inferior to them in some things, and above them in others. (De Joinville, 1801)

It is to the Pali traditions we must go in preference to all other sources, if we desire to know whether any information is obtainable regarding Buddha and his life. (Lopez)

Questions:

1.    What is the hagiography and why does the Buddhas story count as one?

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2.    Explain how Williams and Gombrich show disinterest in the historical details of the Buddha?

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3.    Explain what very important issue for Buddhist studies Williams raised.

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4.    What have early garbled legends described by Lopez have given way?

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5.    Explain today how the Buddha is seen as essentially seen?

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Hagiographical and mythological interpretations of the conception dream of Maya, events surrounding the birth, the prophecy and early life

There are, then, two levels at which to understand the birth of the Buddha: the hagiographical level that is the typical portrayal in texts, often enshrouded in mythical elements; and, the alogorical reading and understanding that concerns what this hagiographical portrayal reveals about the essence of Buddhist sasana.

In the case of Buddhism, the thatness (what a biographical narrative reveals) is a crucial element of the biographical narratives; that the Buddha was born into the world, discovered the Dharma, and, established the sasana and the community, is crucially integral to the while hagiographical reading which includes the mythical elements. The mythical elements therefore become essential to the understanding of Buddhist narratives and cannot be dispensed in search of a historical account, without detriment to the hagiography.

The conception and birth of the Buddha

The birth of the Buddha can be found in various Buddhist texts and the most elaborate versions can be found in a group of Pali texts called the Jatakas, a Sanskrit text called the Mahavastu (which has parallels with Pali Jatakas) and in the famous work by Ashvaghosa, the Buddhacarita, another early Sanskrit poem.

The full story is too detailed to repeat here but can be outlined as follows:

·         When the world has lost the Dharma there is, after a thousand years, a cyclic uproar for a new Buddha to be reborn.

·         The Buddha decides to re-enter the realm of existence.

·         The Buddha selected Queen Maya because of her purity.

·         Queen Maya had a vivid dream about being taken to the Himalayas by angels and the Buddha disguised as a white elephant bearing a lotus flower circled her and entered her womb through her side to conceive and initiate pregnancy.

·         At the moment of conception there were earthquakes and 32 miraculous signs around the world ranging from rivers stopping their t10w to heavenly music heard from the sky.

·         Throughout pregnancy the Buddha was protected by four angels.

·         The Buddha was born on time and Maya gave birth standing upright.

·         The Buddha was born clean as a jewel and two streams of water spurted forth from the sky.

·         Angels caught the Buddha in a golden net and after surveying all four corners of the world the Buddha took seven steps and spoke.

·         The Buddha brought medicine in his hand to cure the blind and lame.

 Interpreting the hagiographical and mythological elements of the conception and birth narratives

The first understanding to glean from the narratives is that the Buddha is special and unique. Denise Cush writes, There are many versions of mythical occurrences associated with the birth of the Buddha. It is not necessary to explore such stories in detail. Suffice to say, all stories indicate that the Buddha was unique.' Remember that Gautama was a sammasambuddha (fully self-enlightened or universal Buddha) and this is the highest form of Buddhahood. This is supported by the observations surrounding Maya's dream about her unusual conception and the fact that the baby Siddhartha immediately stood up and took seven paces, turned to all corners of the universe and announced that he was the most enlightened being in the world and that he would have no more rebirths.

Another understanding would be that the Buddha was pure and untainted by karmic weighting and in total harmony with his natural environment. This is indicated by the fact that Siddhartha was born from Maya's side, and this occurred beneath a tree. Peter Harvey writes, ' ... the birth of Gotama under a tree fits the pattern of other key events in his life; attaining enlightenment under another tree, giving his first sermon in an animal park and dying between two trees. This suggests his liking for simple natural environments where he could be in harmony with all forms of life.' Gautama, although appearing to have all human characteristics he was actually entering the human sphere of existence from a much higher level of para-existence that had already mastered the karmic int1uences of the world.

It can be seen then that many view the Buddha's birth as full of mythical elements and understand the elaborations as significant not in historical terms' but rather in terms of how they relate to Buddhist principles and teachings. In this sense, historical inaccuracy is secondary to the significance and meaning that the 'stories' about the Buddha present for Buddhists. All scholars tend to agree on this matter.

Key quotes

Having thus in due time issued from the womb, he shone as if he had come down from heaven, he who had not been born in the' natural way, - he who was born full of wisdom, not foolish, as if his mind had been purified by countless aeons of contemplation.

(Ashvgoshas Buddhacarita)

When he was born, the earth, though fastened down by (Himalaya) the monarch of mountains, shook like a ship tossed by the wind; and from a cloudless sky there fell a shower full of lotuses and water-lilies, and perfumed with sandalwood.

(Ashvgoshas Buddhacarita)

Questions:

1.    In what sense are there two levels of understanding the Buddhas birth? 

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2.    Explain the miraculous elements of the story .

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3. Explain how the hagiographical and mythological elements of the conception and birth narratives might be interpreted

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4.    What does Ashvgoshas Buddhacarita say about the Buddha’s birth ?

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The prophecy and early Iife

The Buddha's destiny is also a theme of the birth narratives and involves the relationship between holy men and the Kshatriya rulers. Seven holy men predicted that he would be a strong ruler, like his father. Another, called Asita (or Kanhasiri), cried from happiness because he recognised the 32 signs of a Buddha predicting he would aspire to full and complete Enlightenment (sambodhi). In later stories outside the Tripitaka (Tipitaka Pali) it is understood that Asita said that Gautama would become either a (cakkavatin Pali) or a Buddha. Another holy man associated with the stories, Kondanna, predicted that he would become a holy man and pursue the truth.

Key quote

The king, being thus consoled and congratulated by those well-trusted Brahmans, dismissed from his mind all unwelcome suspicion and rose to a still higher degree of joy. And well-pleased he gave to those most excellent of the twice-born rich treasures with all due honour, - 'May he become the ruler of the earth according to your words, and may he retire to the woods when he attains old age' ... Then having learned by signs and through the power of his penances this birth of him who was to destroy all birth, the great seer Asita in his thirst for the excellent Law came to the palace of the Sakya king ... (and declared) 'But hear now the motive for my coming and rejoice thereat; a heavenly voice has been heard by me in the heavenly path, that thy son has been born for the sake of supreme knowledge.' (Ashvgoshas Buddhacarita)

Interpreting the hagiographical and mythological elements of the prophecy, and early life

The story is typically dramatic with the initial clue to the outcome being in the opening section, almost like a Greek tragedy. The birth of the Buddha was met, as was customary, with the input from several wise, religious aids to Suddhodana who declared that his son was destined for greatness. It is all very emotional. Tears are shed and then the prediction that the young ruler could lose his way from his father's path and end up with the life of a homeless ascetic was a devastating blow for Suddhodana. Suddenly, there is hope in that conditions that could prevent this are put forward: the young ruler will stay on the path of a cakravartin as long as he does not experience the Four Sights. Even at the point, the outcome of the story is inevitable and no matter how much Suddhodana tried, he could not control destiny.

For the Buddhist readers, once again, this tells them not about the nature of the Buddha, but more about the nature of Buddhism, the sasana. For it is central to Buddhist doctrine that in life one cannot avoid change, emotional experiences and asking questions. No matter how much effort on Suddhodana's part, he could not deter from the very things nature has in course for his son. Sickness, old age and death are integral to behng human and the quest of the wandering, homeless ascetic reflective of our needs to raise  questions about the nature of life.

Questions:

1.    What was the prophecy about the Buddha?

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2.    Explain how the Prophecy affected his father

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3.    Explain what did the Ashvgoshas Buddhacarita heavenly voice say!.

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4.    How can we Interpreting the hagiographical and mythological elements of the prophecy, and early life?

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The biographical impact of the Four Sights

The four things to be avoided are known as the Four Signs or the Four Sights. To recap, they are:

• Old age

• Sickness

• Death

• A wandering holy man.

It was argued that, if the prince was kept away from these four things, then he would not waver from his path as future king and ruler. However, if the prince did encounter these sights, they would serve as a catalyst to stimulate a search for truth that would take Gautama on an alternative path as a wandering holy man. Up until the age of 29, despite being surrounded by extraordinary levels of luxury and protection, Gautama's life was no more unusual than that of any other prince. He was married to Yasodhara at 16 and they lived within their palace grounds in relative calm.

Key quote

His father provided him with the greatest comforts. He had, so the story tells, three palaces, one for each of the Indian year's three seasons. Lacking nothing of the earthly joys of life, he lived amid song and dance, in luxury and pleasure, knowing nothing of sorrow (Piyadassi)

The significant events that brought about change for Gautama, at the age of 29, involve excursions from the palace grounds with his charioteer. The first sight was an old, weak man, bent over with age. The second sight was another man who had been ravaged by disease, existing as mere skin and bone with the very little strength in his body ebbing away. The third sight was one of grieving relatives carrying the corpse of their beloved on their shoulders in preparation for cremation.

The impact of such experiences was obviously heightened by the sheltered nature of the prince's life. It was his first understanding of the fact that he, like those he saw, was subject to the very same ravaging of time and nature and would ultimately die. This disturbed him and caused great anxiety. Why all this suffering?

Lastly, the sight that provoked the prince most deeply was a wandering holy man, walking calmly and contentedly in pursuit of truth and an answer to life's problems. This man was living a life of purity, in complete detachment from society. From where was his sense of peace derived?

In short, Suddhodana and his son had been set up to fail. The future was already determined and could not be altered, not because of the power of some supernatural prophecy but due to the fact that what was expected to avoid destiny was to take a form of denying reality and ignoring the very nature of existence. As Paul Williams writes: 'Not ever to see old age, sickness, or death is of course impossible, and the fact that we are told his father kept these facts of life from Gautama until adulthood shows the absurdity of reading this account as narrative history. But it also shows the value of reading it as hagiography. Gautama had been brought up radically to misperceive things. He saw things one way, when they are really another way. His story portrays in acute form the situation that the Buddhist claims all unenlightened people are in, whether they realise it or not.' The Four Sights, therefore, were to act as a catalyst both for his 'religious quest' and for his later teachings about life.

Questions:

1.    What are the four sights and why can it not be thought realistic according to Armstrong??

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2.    Explain how the tsory suggests these events had impact on the Buddha?.

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3.    Explain what it measn to say Suddhodana and his son had been set up to fail.

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The Awakening/Enlightenment of the Buddha

The renunciation

On returning to the palace, and hearing the news that Yasodhara had just given birth to a son, Gautama was filled with new anxiety at bringing a new life into the world which now held confusion and suffering. He aptly named his son Rahula, meaning 'fetter' or 'bondage' as Gautama felt even more tied by a new responsibility that bound him to his life as it was: 'A fetter (Rahula) has been born, a bondage has been born' he declared.

Despite his family situation and his rich inheritance, Gautama immediately sought freedom. He renounced his birthright. Shedding his rich clothes and long hair, he took on the mantle of a wandering holy man, with a simple bowl for food offerings and a single robe, and the thoughts,  'Verily, this world has fallen upon trouble - one is born, and grows old, and dies, and falls from one state, and springs up in another. And from the suffering, moreover, no one knows of any way of escape, even from decay and death. 0, when shall a way of escape from this suffering be made known - from decay and death?'

ln Theravada Buddhism, the term anagarika (homelessness Pali) is used to signify one who has 'gone forth' (pabbajja Pali) into the life of a renouncer according to traditional Indian culture. It was tradition for the renouncer to seek out other ascetics from whom he could learn. Gautama sought out two teachers, both renowned for their strict ascetic lifestyle and yogic practice.

Key quote

Thus the great intoxication of youth (yobbanamada), of health (arog ya-mada), and of life (Jivitamada) left him. Having seen the vanity and the danger of the three intoxications, he was overcome by a powerful urge to seek and win the Deathless, to strive for deliverance from old age, illness, misery, and death not only f(JI' himself bul. for all beings (including his wife and child) that suffer.  (Piyadassi)

To be a renouncer was a young man's, indeed a romantic's, aspiration, and from this point of view, the Buddha was but one of many youths who left: home, attracted by the challenge of the wandering life.  (Carrithers)

The first was Alara Kalama, who trained Gautama in yoga. Soon Gautama had attained the same level of experience as his teacher: a state of nothingness. But this did not satisfy Gautama. He feltthat desire, passion and attachments were not eradicated and that this method simply ignored them by taking an alternative route. Despite the fact that Kalama asked Gautama to become his teacher, Gautama moved on to find another way.

The second teacher was Uddaka Ramaputta _ Similarly, mastery of Ramaputta's yoga led not to an awakening of truth or an Enlightenment experience, but simply to a plane beyond nothingness referred to as neither perception nor nonperception. Such meditative states were later to become known as false states because they give an impression of Awakening or Enlightenment but are still far from it.

After six years of experimenting with the two schools of yoga, the ascetic lifestyle began to take its toll. He had become so weak and thin that it is alleged that his backbone was visible through his stomach. As a young man Gautama was kept in the lap of luxury and he did not want for anything, never knowing sorrow or witnessing suffering. As a contrast to this, as an ascetic he practised a very harsh form of asceticism and ate only one meal a day, gradually reducing this to one jujube fruit, a sesame seed and a grain of rice each day although other accounts written say that towards his physical demise he only ate one grain of rice a day.

At this point, close to physical exhaustion and collapse, he was revived with milk rice by a woman called Sujata. Gradually, on regaining some strength, Gautama decided to pursue an alternative lifestyle and find some 'Middle Way' between the two extremes of luxury and asceticism. As Narada Thera states: ‘The new way which he himself discovered was the Middle Path, Majjhima Patipada, which subsequently became one of the salient characteristics of his teaching.'

Interpreting the hagiographical and mythological elements of the renunciation

The traditional Indian idea of renunciation is connected to the fourth stage of life, a sannyasin. It is a measured decision and considered carefully as it involves breaking all family ties and leaving all material wealth behind to live the life of a wandering recluse. For Gautama, however, it appears to have been a decision that was more based in an inability to cope emotionally with his new-found knowledge about life. Gautama was confused, irritated and dissatisfied with not having an answer to the facts of life as he saw them displayed in the first three of the Four Sights. Despite Michael Carrithers' observation that Gautama's renunciation may not have been unique in India at the time, given the presence of the Samana movement, the Buddhist monk and scholar Narada Thera proposes that it was unique based upon his circumstances: 'It was an unprecedented historic renunciation; for he renounced not in his old age but in the prime of manhood, not in poverty but in plenty.'

Gautama's decision to seek out an answer is in keeping with the Buddhist teaching that he was sammasambuddha. It also reflects the ideal of Buddhism as the 'Middle Way' or 'Middle Path' between the extremes of asceticism and luxury.

At a deeper level, the story also depicts sharply the psychological and emotional turbulence that many people who embrace Buddhism may face in trying to come to terms with the harsh realities of the impermanence of life. This is why the process of learning to meditate, that is, to truly come to an understanding of the observance that the nature qt,exi_~tence is impermanent, is a gradual process that begins with a simple focus. O'"ne'bfthe most advanced forms of meditation in Theravada Buddhism is a reflection on impermanence by focusing on a skeleton and the idea of death. Such a morbid enterprise is hardly suitable for a beginner!

Key quotes

First he sought guidance from two famous sages, from Alara KaJama and Uddaka Ramaputta, hoping that they, being masters of meditation, would teach him all they knew, leading him to the heights of concentrative thought. He practised concentration and reached the highest meditative attainments possible thereby, but was not satisfied with anything short of Supreme Enlightenment. (Piyadassi)

There was, and still is, a belief in India among many of her ascetics that purification and final deliverance can be achieved by rigorous self-mortification, and the ascetic Cotama decided to test the truth of it(Piyadassi)

His body was reduced to almost a skeleton. The more he tormented his body, the farther his goal receded from him. (Narada Thera)

Equally so, Gautama's reaction for a man so young was extreme to say the least. His feelings were so tumultuous that he abandoned the comfort and security of his home, family and wealth. Gautama mirrored the reactions of what modern-day psychology would refer to as a 'split' whereby someone tends to suddenly experience and interpret their emotions only in extremes; once again, this reinforces the idea that neither extreme is the way to find an answer to life as both involve an element of either emotional or mental instability. Clearly, the Four Sights has stirred something deep within the psyche of Gautama to create such emotional and mental panic. This demonstrates that a deep understanding of the implications of suffering and the quest to resolve it had already been well understood by Gautama.

In 1972 Sheldon Kopp published his work If You Meet Buddha on the Road, Kill Him! which is a psychotherapist's understanding of Gautama Buddha's whole experience of being attached to something and then finally finding the answer in letting go. He writes: 'When Siddhartha, the patient, myself as therapist (and you, too) realize that a teacher is irrelevant to learning, the each of us must turn to himself... So it is in Siddhartha's searching out the limits first of his ascetic self, and then his sensual self It is not possible to know how much is just enough until we have experienced how much is more than enough.' This too reinforces the message previously learned about Gautama's life-story being read as a hagiography and the fact that the message of the Buddha to 'test for yourselves' indicates that the answer to life does not rest with him but with the teachings he discovered.

The well-respected Thai monk Ajahn Chah once gave a talk entitled Why are we here? In which he compared life to an ice cube slowly melting away. During life, however, we cling to things that take away our attention from questions about life, death and religion. We have no need of them as we are happy in the delusion that things will last. It is only when the body starts to fail that many come to realise they are in need of an answer but then it is too late.

He writes:

'These are things which we should contemplate while we still have some vigor, we should practice while we're young. If you want to make merit then hurry up and do so, don't just leave it up to the oldies. Most people just wait until they get old before they will go to a monastery and try to practice Dhamma. Women and men say the same thing ... "Wait till I get old first." I don't know why they say that, does an old person have much vigor? ... "Hey, Grandma! Let's go to the monastery!"

"You go ahead, my ears aren't so good anymore." You see what I mean? When her ears were good what was she listening to? "Beats me!" ... Finally when her ears are gone she goes to the temple. It's hopeless. She listens to the sermon but she hasn't got a clue what they're saying. People wait till they're all used up before they'll think of practicing the Dhamma.'

The renunciation and quest of Gautama at an early age serve to remind us all that answers to life are perhaps worth pursuing whilst we have the chance!

Key Quotes

People are ignorant of these things. Some go to Wat Pah Pong, into the main hall, see the skeletons ... and then come running right out again! They can't bear to look. They're afraid, afraid of the skeletons. I figure these people have never seen themselves before ... They're born with it and yet they've never seen it. .. This shows how out of touch people are with themselves. (Ajan chah)

Enlightenment and the freedom it brings are always imminent but our very efforts to catch hold of what we are seeking may prevent us from discovering what is already there. (Kopp)

Questions:

1.    What was the name he gave his son and why was it given what does it symbolises?

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2.    Explain the importance of renunciation for the Buddha and in Buddhist traditions?

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3.    Explain who the Buddha trained with and what he find?.

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4.    What importance can we give to renunciation and quest of Gautama     ?

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The Awakening under the Bodhi Tree: The Enlightenment of Siddhartha Gautama

Sitting beneath a Bodhi or Bod (pipal) tree, in a state of deep meditation, Gautama contemplated the nature of existence throughout the night. Traditional Buddhist writings have vivid accounts of his religious experience that night. All centre around the process of meditation through levels of insight known as Jhanas (dhyanas Sanskrit) before explaining how Gautama then encountered the ultimate experience known as nirvana (nibbana Pali).

There are, however, other mythological elements to his experience in the stories that focus on the deva (spiritual being or deity) of the sense realm of existence, Mara. Mara represents all that binds human beings to the physical world.

The mythic and psychological narratives of Mara

The first event to arise during Gautama's contemplations was the temptation by the spiritual being (god or demon), Mara, who challenged Gautama to abandon his quest for Enlightenment. Since Mara's chief role was to ensure that all existence was driven by the delusions of pleasure and attachment, the threat to any disruption of this through Gautama finding an escape from this cycle of birth, death and rebirth (samsara) was serious.

Earlier texts all describe a simple encounter, Mara encouraging Gautama to seek a more religious path of ceremony and good works in order to strengthen karma. Gautama simply resisted and Mara vanished. For example, Mara is the focus of a group of Suttas  in the Pali Canon, all found within the Samyutta Nikaya (Grouped Discourses) of the Sutta Pitakaa. These texts are difficult to date accurately but are traditionally dated within the century following Buddha's death and all relay a relatively uncomplicated confrontation.

Later texts give more detail. with many more mythological elements creeping in. For example, the epic by Ashvagosha, the Buddhacarita, is an extensive poem that depicts two main parts of the Buddha's temptation: the battle with Mara's army and the confrontation with Mara's three daughters.

The final element of Mara's temptation involves Mara telling Gautama that no one could bear witness to his good works in previous lives and this one. This final part of the myth appears in the commentary on the Jataka's, the and has been extremely popular in both art and sculpture. Gautama, in response to Mara's claim, placed his hand to thErir6~md and touched the earth with his middle finger as a witness to his good works. This is often depicted in art and architecture as the Buddha sitting in a half-lotus (crossed-legged) meditation posture, with one hand in his lap and the other reaching out to touch the earth as witness.

Key quote

Cross legged he sat uncler a tree, which later became known as the Bodhi Tree, the 'Tree of Enlightenment' or 'Tree of Wisdom', on the bank of the river Nerajara, a Gaya (now known as Buddhagaya), making the final effort with the inflexible resolution: 'Though only my skin, sinews, and bones remain, and my blood and flesh dry up and wither away, yet will I never stir from this seat until I have attained full enlightenment' (sammasambodhi) (Piyadassi)

Mara 's army

Mara observed Gautama firmly resolved to seek out Enlightenment sitting under the Bodhi tree. He immediately summoned all his mighty forces and sent an army, equipped with deadly weapons, to attack Gautama. Gautama summoned his own defence against each wave of Mara's attack by presenting his ten paramis (perfections), namely, generosity, virtue, renunciation, wisdom, energy, patience, truthfulness, determination, loving kindness, and finally, equanimity.

Each perfection was used to defeat the ten divisions of Mara's army which eventually fled.

Mara then attempts to tempt Gautama, with promises of both glory and pleasure, and begins to warn of consequences for breaking away from his religious and secular duties. Gautama easily rejects these, knowing they are meaningless but Mara immediately sends a group of revolting and terrible creatures to destroy his body. The creatures launch an array of arrows but these are transformed into flowers before they reach Gautama's flesh and fall harmlessly to the ground. Gautama asks the earth to intervene and the goddess washes away the creatures by way of a flood.

Mara’s daughters

The daughters of Mara are then dispatched to try to persuade and seduce Gautama by transforming themselves into hundreds of beautiful maidens. However, Gautama recognises them as they are, and is not swayed from his goal. The Samyatta Nikaya states: ' "Men's tastes are diverse. Suppose we each manifest ourselves in the form of a hundred maidens." Then Mara's three daughters, each manifesting herself in the form of a hundred maidens, approached the Blessed One and said to him: "We serve at your feet. ascetic." But the Blessed One paid no attention, as he was liberated in the unsurpassed extinction of acquisitions.'

Key Quote

Then Mara's daughters - Tanha, A rati, and Raga - approached the Blessed One and said to him: 'We serve at your feet, ascetic.' But the Blessed One paid no attention, as he was liberated in the unsurpassed extinction of acquisitions. (Samyutta Nikaya)

The earth touching Gesture

The final confrontation is when Gautama's honour is challenged. The seat, according to legend, was Mara's seat and the claim by Mara was that there was no-one to testify to Gautama's virtue and right to sit there. It is recorded that the earth then roared in response and bore the testimony, 'I stand his witness'. This event is called the bhumisparsha mudra (earth-touching mudra) and is usually associated in art and sculpture with the hurling of the cakkavadha (disc) by Mara as a final challenge to the right of Gautama to sit where he was sitting, only for the disc to change into an umbrella to shelter Gautama. Gautama responded by touching the earth with his middle finger. Some versions of the account speak of an earthquake or tremor in response to Gautama's touch. Mara's defeat was then final and Gautama was surrounded by auspicious supernatural beings who celebrated his victory.

Hagiographical and mythological interpretations of Mara's defeat

There are different ways in which Buddhists have understood and used the episodes from the hagiography of the Buddha that deal with Mara's defeat. Some of the most popular interpretations of the events relate, once again, to the teachings and quest of Gautama as it is relevant to the individual in applying these to his or her spiritual path and do not relate to any ontological statement about Gautama himself. Here are some readings of the narratives:

• Psychological: according to this reading, Mara is seen as representing the

conflicted mind that wrestles with ego and self-doubt

• Physical: according to this reading, Mara is seen as representing the senses

• Hindrances: according to this reading, Mara is seen as representing the obstacles in life that hinder spiritual progress and divert to other matters that create attachment

• Daughters: according to this reading, Mara's daughters are seen as representing the threefold greed/attachment (raga), craving (Tanah) and discontent (arati)

• Whole person: according to this reading, Mara is seen as representing a threefold wave of attack on mind, body and character of an individual in pursuing the Buddhist path

Questions:

1.    What is the ultimate experience the Buddha and Buddhists hope to achieve?

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2.    Explain what are the mythic and psychological aspects of the narratives of Mara.

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3.    Explain how mythical elements creep into the narratives of Mara.

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4.    What is the function of the narrative of Maras daughters?

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5.    What is the function of the narrative of Maras demons or army?

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6.    What is the significance of the earth touching gesture?

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The four meditative absorptions (jhanas)

Before reaching an enlightened state, Gautama made progression through the four jhanas, that is, meditative stages, also called absorptions. Each stage has a corresponding experience, which are:

• 1st jhana: unbroken attention to the object of meditation, detached from the world and in a total state of calm.

• 2nd jhana: thoughts are discarded as detachment becomes more profound and a sense of joy, as Mahathera Nyanatiloka defines it. 'a state free from thought conception and discursive thinking ... which is born of concentration'.

• 3rd jhana: a state of equanimity, totally composed and with absolute attentiveness, but still clearly conscious.

• 4th jhana: this is a state beyond all differentiation, beyond pleasure and pain, indeed, beyond all sense of joy and thought construction, as Denise Cush describes it, 'leaving a mind peaceful. tranquil. clear, a sharp tool ready to pierce into reality'.

Key quotes

Quite secluded from sense pleasures, secluded from unwholesome states of mind, he enters and dwells in the first jhana, which is accompanied he applied thought and sustained thought with rapture and happiness born of seclusion. (Majjhima Nikaya 1:181)

With the subsiding of applied thought and sustained thought he enters and dwells in the second jhana, which has internal confidence and unification of mind, is without applied thought and sustained thought, and is filled with rapture and happiness born of concentration. (Majjhima Nikaya 1:181)

With the fading away of rapture, he dwells in equanimity, mindful and discerning; and he experiences in his own person that happiness of which the noble ones say: 'Happily lives he who is equanimous and mindful' - thus he enters and dwells in the third jhana. (Majjhima Nikaya 1:182)

There are also four other jhanas, sometimes referred to as numbers 5 to 8, but they can also all be grouped under the fourth jhana and are listed as distinct stages within this state. Generally speaking, it is the fourth jhana that tends to be seen as the most crucial stage.

More Key quotes

When the great sage, sprung from a line of royal sages, sat down there with his soul fully resolved to obtain the highest knowledge, the whole world rejoiced; but Mara, the enemy of the good law, was afraid. He whom they call in the world Kamadeva, the owner of the various weapons, the flower arrowed, the lord of the course of desire, - it is he whom they also style Mara the enemy of liberation. (Buddhacarita)

... Mara thus addressed the calm seer as he sat on his seat, preparing to cross to the further side of the ocean of existence:

'Up, up, 0 thou Kshatriya, afraid of death! follow thine own duty and abandon this law of liberation! And having conquered the lower worlds by thy arrows [and sacrifices], proceed to gain the higher worlds of Indra. That is a glorious path to travel, which has been followed by former leaders of men; this mendicant life is ill-suited for one born in the noble family of a royal sage to follow.' (Buddhacarita)

That this account of Buddha's struggle with Mara is literally true, none but the most ignorant of the Buddhists believe, even at the present day. (Malalasekera)

With the abandoning of pleasure and pain, and with the previous disappearance of joy and grief, he enters and dwells in the fourth jhana, which has neither-pain-nor-pleasure and has purity of mindfulness due to equanimity. (Majjhima Nikaya 1:182)

The four further experiences within the fourth jhana include the sphere of boundless space, the sphere of boundless consciousness, the sphere of nothingness, and finally, the sphere of neither-perception-nor-non-perception. These have sometimes been referred to as the four false states in that they were already attained by some ascetics who believed that they had experienced the ultimate truth; however, nirvana (nibbana) is beyond this. Gautama would have been familiar with these types of meditative stages in his earlier ascetic practices from other teachers; however, it should be noted that there is division and debate amongst scholars as to whether or not the four jhanas in Buddhism were an innovation by Gautama. What is important, nonetheless, is to understand that these only provide a pathway to Enlightenment and that the Buddhist understanding of Enlightenment is beyond the jhanas.

The jhanas will be studied in more depth in the section on meditation.

Questions:

1.    What is the first Jhana and what does the Buddha say about it?

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2.    What is the second and what does the Buddha say about it?

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3.    What is the third and what does the Buddha say about it?

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4.    What is thefourth and what does the Buddha say about it?

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5.    Explain what else happens in the fourth Jhana?

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6.    How do Buddhsts think enlightenment and the Jhannas relate?

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Knowledge of past lives, karma and the cessation of dukkha

As we have seen, the first four jhanas also involved access to meditative planes usually associated with Hindu yoga. Gautama had experienced these under his former teachers but was not satisfied. He felt that this was not the answer.

It is the final stage of Gautama's experience that gave him further access to three significant insights beyond any that he had experienced before:

1.    The first was the elevated insight into his many previous lives throughout time. The Buddha recounted these stories of his previous lives to help him deliver a variety of practical examples of his teaching. These stories can be found in the Jatakas, of which there are around 550, where the Buddha was born as a human being, animal. bird and fish, male and female. The characters in the tales were identified with him in his current life. The main message behind the Jataka stories is the consistent and determined effort to perfect the qualities that led Gautama to attain Enlightenment as sammasambuddha.

2.    After this, he obtained pure observational insight of the plight of other beings tied to the world of rebirth. He had an objective overview of how the world of existence functioned in terms of birth, death and rebirth throughout the universe according to the laws of karma. The Buddha became aware that our intentions and actions (karma) were instrumental in determining the very nature of our existence and in the same way were the answer to changing our futures. As the Dhammapada 1:1 states: 'All that we are is the result of what we have thought: it is founded on our thoughts, it is made up of our thoughts. If a man speaks or acts with an evil thought, pain follows him, as the wheel follows the foot of the ox that draws the carriage: The Buddha realised that for change to occur and the transformation from ignorance to Enlightenment to be made, we had to begin with the origins of karma in terms of mental formations.

3.    Finally, he went through the Enlightenment experience, gaining insight into true and perfect wisdom of how the barriers to spiritual truth can be destroyed through the cessation of dukkha. This was the final awakening that revealed the insight into how this process of a transformation from suffering and ignorance to Enlightenment could be experienced. The Buddha saw that the relentless turning of the cycle of existence involved suffering and ignorance. Suffering was to be eradicated through an awareness of the reality of the three marks of existence (suffering, impermanence and an absence of a substantial personal existence) and the removal of ignorance. This was to be achieved through the destruction, or 'blowing out' of the three fires that cause such delusion and pain, namely, greed, hatred and delusion. Conceptual ideas about nirvana (nibbana) will be discussed later, but for now it can be understood as an experience that provided insight into the way things are in life but, more importantly, how to deal with them. Gautama had now become the Buddha, the enlightened one or one endowed with wisdom. More accurately, he had achieved sammasambodhi. or perfect Enlightenment and as Buddhists will explain, the wheel of Dhamma had started to turn in this world again.

Key quote

Thus the Bodhisatta Gotama at the age of thirty-five, on another full moon of May (vesakha, vesak), attained Supreme Enlightenment by comprehending in all their fullness the Four Noble Truths, the Eternal Verities, and he became the Buddha, the Great Healer and Consummate Master-Physician who can cure the ills of beings. This is the greatest unshakeable victory. (Piyadassi)

Key quotes

Then the Bodhisatta directed his mind to the knowledge of the disappearing and reappearing of beings of varied forms, in good states of experience, and in states of woe, each faring according to his deeds (cutapapataana). This was the second knowledge aLLained by him in the middle watch of the night. Next he directed his mind to the knowledge of the eradication of the taints (asavakkhayaana). (Piyadassi)

When, as the Buddha, he knew this truth, the earth swayed like a woman drunken with wine, the quarters shone bright with clouds of Siddhas, and mighty drums resounded in the sky. Pleasant breezes blew softly, the heaven rained moisture from a cloudless sky, and from the trees there dropped flowers and fruit out of due season as if to do him honour. (Ashvgoshas Buddhacarita)

He understood as it really is: 'This is suffering (dukkha), this is the arising of suffering, this is the cessation of suffering, this is the path leading to the cessation of suffering.' He understood as it really is: 'These are defilements (asavas), this is the arising of defilements, this is the cessation of defilements, this is the path leading to the cessation of defilements.'(Piyadassi)

Questions:

1.    What the first ‘super knowledge’ (cush) transic incite the Buddha received?

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2.    What the second  ‘super knowledge’ transic incite the Buddha received?

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3.    What the third ‘super knowledge’ transic incite the Buddha received?

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Spreading the teaching

The Buddha began to teach in the Deer Park in Sarnath, and addressed a group of five friends he had spent time with as an ascetic. His first teaching was on the Four Noble Truths: suffering, the causes of suffering, the end of suffering or nibbana, and the path that leads to the end of suffering. The Buddha's teaching is called the Dhamma, meaning the truth of things.

The Buddha spent his last 45 years wandering throughout northeast India teaching whoever was interested: kings and poor people, men and women, old and young. All his teachings were given during this period, but none of them was written down because writing was not common at that time. They were collected together and written down several centuries later and are known as Suttas or Discourses of the Buddha.

Some of his disciples became monks and nuns, and others remained householders. The Buddha himself established monasticism, the way of life of monks and nuns who give up family, job and other social obligations to follow a simple life dedicated to the Dhamma. Unlike the ascetics or shramanas, Buddhist monks lived in small groups or communities from the outset and were discouraged from being solitary. The community of monastics is called the Sangha. The Buddha personally set out the rules for monastic life, which were later collected together and written down to form the scriptures called the Vinaya. At the time it was revolutionary and quite controversial to allow women to follow the religious life and become nuns, and the Buddha withstood much criticism for having agreed to this.

The Buddha's teaching was presented as the Middle Way, i.e. a middle way between the extreme of pleasure and indulgence on the one hand, and the extreme of asceticism and mortification on the other. The Buddha had personally experienced both these extremes in his life and found they were not the way to true happiness. The Buddha's approach was one of moderation. By following the Buddha's teachings, many of his disciples became arahats very quickly, so by the time the Buddha was elderly there was a considerable Sangha of arahats to continue the teachings.

Death or passing away

The Buddha was unwell for several months before he died, but he continued to wander on foot and teach. His final words were: 'All conditioned things are subject to decay. Attain perfection through diligence' (Digha Nikaya,11.156). His death was a final teaching on impermanence: all things come to an end, and one can never be complacent.

He died in the town of Kusinara at the age of 80 as a result of eating tainted food. For Buddhists he did not die in the ordinary sense, rather he attained the supreme nibbana or parinibbana, which is deathless. This is why Buddhists do not say that the Buddha died but rather that he 'passed away'. He passed away lying on his right side, with his right hand under his head. There are many statues of the Buddha in this pose throughout Southeast Asia and Sri Lanka.

They are used as reminders of the inevitability of impermanence and death. His body was cremated but some bones and teeth did not burn, so these were kept as sacred relics and placed inside eight stu pas specially built to house them. The Buddha did not appoint a successor. He told his followers that his legacy to them was his teachings, the Dhamma, and this was the guide they should follow.

Stupas or dagobas are sacred monuments housing the relics of the Buddha or a Buddhist saint, or copies of the scriptures. These sacred objects are placed in the centre of the stupa while it is being built, and become inaccessible once it is finished because there is no door. Stu pas are places of pilgrimage for Buddhists, who walk round and round the stupa reciting prayers. Each country in Asia developed its own particular artistic style for building stu pas. In all cases, the stupa is an example of sacred architecture and symbolises the enlightened mind. In the first centuries after the Buddha's death, the Buddha was represented only by symbols: by a stupa, by a footprint, or by an eight-spoked wheel. It was under Greek influence that the idealised depiction of the Buddha as a human being was developed, from the 2nd century BCE onwards.

Questions:

1.    What is the significance of the Buddhas teaching period for the three refuges – Budhha, Dharma and Sangha?

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2.    Explain in what way was the Buddhas teaching a middle way.

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3.    Explain in what way do Buddhists see the Buddhas death as a final teaching.

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4.    What is parinibbana and for whom is it more important and why?

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5.    Explain what are Stupas?

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Three stories from the Buddha's life

Stories from the Buddha's life are part of Buddhist culture and are taught to everyone from childhood. There are several things we can learn from them. First, they show how the Buddha related to other people, how he got his message across, and how he was seen by others. Second, they contain elements of his teachings and illustrate his values and his understanding of life. Third, they tell us about the social context in which the Buddha lived, about the beliefs and prejudices of his day, and the way the community of his followers developed. The following three stories offer examples of conversion, the workings of kamma (karma) and non-violence, and the Buddha's rejection of certain social and religious values of his time.

1 Angulimala (MalJhlma Nikaya 86)

One day the Buddha found the village of Savatthi deserted. People were terrified because Angulimala, a mass murderer, was in the area. He had cut off a finger from each of his victims and wore 99 fingers around his neck, hence his name, which means 'necklace of fingers'. Despite this the Buddha walked along the road as usual. He suddenly heard the sound of footsteps behind him.

Angulimala shouted out to him, 'Stop, monk, stop!' The Buddha continued walking. When Angulimala had caught up with him he said, 'I told you to stop, monk. Why don't you stop?' 'I stopped a long time ago. It is you who have not stopped', replied the Buddha.

Angulimala was startled by the Buddha's reply. He blocked his path and forced him to stop. The Buddha looked him straight in the eye like a friend or a brother. Angulimala had never met anyone who radiated such serenity and ease, and who did not run away from him in terror. His curiosity was aroused: why did this monk feel no fear? And what did he mean about stopping and not stopping?

The two men entered into conversation. The Buddha explained that what he had learned to do was to stop harming and causing suffering to others. Everyone is afraid of dying; the duty of a monk is to protect life, not to destroy it. But Angulimala was cynical. 'Human beings don't love each other. They are cruel and deceptive. Why should I love other people?'

'There may be cruel people in this world, but there are also many kind people. My path can transform cruelty into kindness', said the Buddha. 'Right now you are on the path of hatred, but it is up to you: you can choose the path of love and forgiveness instead: Angulimala was thrown into confusion, but he could sense that the Buddha spoke from love and was worthy of respect. 'It is a great pity I did not meet you sooner', he said. 'I have gone too far, I can't turn back: 'No', urged the Buddha, 'it is never too late: Their discussion continued for some time, and in the end Angulimala knelt before the Buddha and vowed to change his evil ways and to follow him. He was ordained as a monk and tried hard to practise meditation correctly and lead a disciplined life. Even the Buddha was amazed at the speed of his transformation. Just two weeks after becoming a monk, he radiated serenity and stability, and the other monks nicknamed him 'Ahimsaka', which means 'non-violent one'.

2 Sunita (Thlch Nhat Hanh, Old Path, White Clouds, Parallax Press, 1991)

Sunita was a homeless 'untouchable' who survived by sweeping the streets. It was the custom for low-class people like him to stand at a distance from anyone of high class who might approach. One day, as he was busy sweeping the road, he saw the Buddha approaching with a group of monks. He looked in vain for a place to stand aside from them, but the best he could do was to flatten himself against a wall and fold his hands in a gesture of respect. To his dismay the Buddha came straight up to him, but far from being angry, as he had expected, the Buddha spoke in a friendly way. He asked Sunita whether he would like to give up his job as a sweeper and follow him instead.

Sunita was astonished and delighted. He was used to being ordered about; nobody had ever spoken to him in a kind and respectful way before. He jumped at the chance and the Buddha ordained him there and then. In time, he became a respected and educated monk.

3 Devadatta (Cullavagga 7.3- 4)

Devadatta was the Buddha's jealous cousin. They grew up together as children, and as an adult Devadatta became a monk and follower of the Buddha. But Devadatta was the archetypal troublemaker: he orchestrated three assassination attempts against the Buddha, and also tried to create a split within the Buddhist community. In the long term, he failed. The stories about his adventures show that, for all the Buddha's greatness, he did not succeed in converting everyone around him. They also illustrate the Buddha's non-violent approach to solving problems.

Devadatta tried to kill the Buddha on three separate occasions. First, he hired assassins to kill him, but they were moved by the Buddha's persuasiveness and became converts instead. Second, Devadatta climbed to the top of a mountain called Vulture Peak, and hurled a rock down on the Buddha as he was passing below. The rock narrowly missed him and wounded him slightly. Finally, Devadatta sent a wild elephant to attack him.

The elephant charged down the road towards the Buddha, but as it neared him it unexpectedly slowed down and became quite tame. The Buddha used the power of love to subdue it. Towards the end of his life, after his failure at creating a rival break-away group and after a long illness, Devadatta finally repented his behaviour and had himself carried on a litter into the Buddha's presence. He cried out, 'I seek refuge in the Buddha', and was received back into the community. The Buddha prophesied that he would eventually attain enlightenment.

Questions:

1.    What is importance of stories in Buddhist cultrure? ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

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2.    What does the story of Anguilmala teach Buddhists?

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3.    What does the story of Sunita teach Buddhists?

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4.    What does the story of Devantta teach Buddhists?

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Significance of the Buddha for Buddhists

Key Ideas

·         The Buddha is fundamentally human rather than divine, so Buddhists can use his life as a model to follow

·         Shakyamuni is one of many budd has who appear in the world and has a unique role for this time in history

·         Buddhists do not pray to the Buddha for help, but remembering him inspires gratitude and meditation

·         The Buddha's authority stems from his experience of enlightenment

·         The Dhamma is a universal truth revealed by the Buddha but not exclusive or personal to him

Key words

Abhidhamma – the advanced teaching found the the third section of the Tripitaka

The Buddha was not divine or a prophet

The Buddha always denied that he was divine in nature or divine in origin. Buddhists do not see him as a prophet of the divine either. The Buddha himself, and the Buddhist sages who have succeeded him since, have found no reason to believe there is a God, understood either as creator of the universe or as a supreme person who is master of the universe. They base this view on two main factors. First, they say that through meditation nobody has ever experienced such a God, so there is no empirical evidence for his existence through meditative insight or mystical experience. Second, they claim that it is impossible to find logical arguments for the existence of a creator God. All arguments end up in contradiction or absurdity. It follows that as the existence of God is not accepted, the Buddha is not considered a divine being.

So the significance of the Buddha for Buddhists is quite different from that of Jesus for Christians, or Mohammed for Muslims. Paul Williams explains in Buddhist Thought (Routledge, 2000):

The Buddha is thought by Buddhists to be one who has awakened fully to the final truth of things, and thus freed, liberated, himself once and for all from all forms of suffering. He is also one who, out of supreme compassion, has taught others the way to attain liberation themselves. Buddhas are not born that way, and they are certainly not thought to be eternal gods (or God). Once (many lifetimes ago) they were just like you and me. They strove through their own efforts, and became buddhas. A buddha is superior to the rest of us because he 'knows it how it is'. We, on the other hand, wallow in confusion, in ignorance. Thus we are unhappy and suffer.

The key idea here is that the Buddha is fundamentally a human being like the rest of us. He took rebirth many times before he was born as Siddattha Gotama in northern India. Children in traditional Buddhist societies are taught the Jataka Tales. which are moral stories based on the Buddha's previous lives. In these stories we learn that in certain lives he was born as different types of animals, while in others he was a human being. In some lives he was rich and powerful. and in others he was simple and poor. From this point of view, then, the big picture of the lives of the Buddha mirrors the way in which all human beings take rebirth again and again in various forms of existence.

How a person becomes a buddha

During the course of these many lifetimes, the Buddha gradually learned to be more and more virtuous. There are many stories of the way he devoted his life to help others, both as an animal helping other animals and as a human being helping humans or animals. Slowly, he gained insight and wisdom, unlimited compassion and generosity, and the skills and power needed to be effective in helping others. His birth as Siddattha Gotama is therefore seen as the culmination of these many lifetimes of spiritual development. His ability to attain enlightenment as Buddha Shakyamuni was only possible because of all the virtuous power he had accumulated in previous lives.

The point is that enlightenment is attained primarily through our own efforts. In this sense, we do not depend on any external force, such as God, in order to achieve it, nor on any circumstances beyond our control. It is really up to us, and if we decide to live as the Buddha advised then we, too, can attain enlightenment.

This also means that enlightenment is not predestined for only the select few, nor is it attained in an arbitrary way without reason. The Buddha explained in detail what virtuous thoughts and acts we need to cultivate in order to make spiritual progress. so the Buddhist path is not just a matter of chance. Having said this, it is of course not easy to become enlightened, and these days it is thought that not many people are able to attain it because negative emotions are so wild. Nevertheless, it does remain possible.

The Buddha's miraculous powers

The Buddha declared he was neither divine nor a prophet. so the big question is how we can account for the miracles that he demonstrated and the extraordinary events that took place in his life, of which there are many examples in the scriptures. The extraordinary events in the Buddha's life story may be marked by earthquakes or blossoms out of season whenever a significant episode occurs. Three episodes stand out in particular: his birth, his victory over Mara, and his passing away.

One example of his miraculous powers is the story of the wrestling match between Siddattha and Devadatta when they were still young men. Devadatta fancied his wrestling skills and thought that he could take on Siddattha single-handed. But when he tried. the young prince tossed his cousin into the air, lifting him up on one finger, and then, in full control, placing him back on the ground. Another example is the way that the

Buddha tamed the wild elephant that Devadatta sent to kill him. There are other stories when the Buddha walks in the air, or creates a double of himself.

Perhaps the best known story of a miraculous feat performed by the Buddha is that of his stay in the heaven of the 33 gods. Every year in the rainy season, the Buddha and his monks used to stay in one place and spend three months in retreat. One year, possibly eight years after he began teaching, he decided to visit the heaven where his mother lived. She had died soon after giving birth to him, so he had never been able to repay her kindness in giving him life. The Buddha wanted to show his gratitude by sharing some Dhamma teachings with her, so it is said that with a few gigantic strides, he climbed through the air and travelled to the heaven where she stayed.

He remained in the heaven of the 33 gods for the entire rainy season that year, and taught his mother the philosophical teachings of Buddhism. These were compiled much later in a separate collection of scriptures called the Abhidhamma. Once this was accomplished, he descended back to earth and continued his life. Many Buddhist countries still celebrate his descent from heaven each year in the form of a colourful Buddhist festival.

For Buddhists, these stories illustrate the specific qualities and powers that come from enlightenment or from being very close to enlightenment. They are powers that can be developed by anyone who becomes fully awakened. Enlightenment is a transcendental state that takes a person beyond the mental limitations of being human, as well as beyond the natural limitations of the physical world. This is why miracles are possible, because an enlightened being is not subject to the physical laws of nature. Buddhists do not therefore feel the need to appeal to the divine in order to explain these special events.

It should be added that some of the extraordinary circumstances described in the scriptures may not have been literally true. It is likely that earthquakes and so on were added to the story as part of an epic literary style in order to underline the significance of the episode taking place. However, Buddhist followers would generally believe in the authenticity of the miraculous actions performed by the Buddha himself.

Shakyamuni is not the only Buddha

Another fact that distinguishes the Buddha from the leaders of other religions is that he is not unique. For Buddhists, the historical Buddha, whose life is described above, is one of several different budd has who have come or will come to teach people here on earth. According to some Theravada traditions, there were six budd has in ages prior to our own, and there will be more in the future. The time span covered by these various ages is vast, and is counted in hundreds of thousands of human years. each Buddha has a mission to spread the teachings of the Dhamma in order to relieve the suffering of beings living at that time.

The next buddha will be called Maitreya, and Edward Conze estimates that he will appear about 30,000 years from now after the teachings of Shakyamuni have declined. Like Shakyamuni before him, he now resides in a pure realm called Tushita Heaven, where only buddhas or very advanced beings dwell, until the time comes for him to be born a human being.

According to the Theravada tradition, there are six budd has in this historical age, and each one comes at a time when the Dhamma has died out and is no longer known by human beings. These budd has therefore playa unique role, because they introduce the Dhamma to societies where it does not exist.

The basis of the Buddha's authority

Because Buddha Shakyamuni is not the only buddha, he is not the only enlightened being who teaches the Dhamma. Therefore Buddhists do not consider that the Buddhist teachings as we know them were invented by Buddha Shakyamuni, or are in any way exclusive to him.

Richard Gombrich explains rrheravada Buddhism, Routledge, 1988):

Outsiders see him as the founder of Buddhism; for Buddhists the matter is slightly more complicated. As they see it, the Truth is eternal, but not always realized. Time has no beginning or end but goes through vast cycles. Every now and again there arises in the world a religious genius, a Buddha, who has the infinite wisdom to comprehend the Truth and the infinite compassion to preach it to the suffering world, so that others too may attain Enlightenment. Gotama is the most recent teacher in the infinite series of Buddhas.

The Dhamma is considered an eternal truth that does not belong to anyone in particular. Buddhists believe that the truth is always the truth, whether or not a buddha has revealed it to us, and whether or not we have understood it. The Theravada scriptures tell us that all buddhas, in all ages, teach the same truth. The teachings of the Buddha are therefore not personal to him.

The reason that the Buddha is a supreme source of authority for Buddhists is because he attained enlightenment. This in itself gives him the power and ability to teach people how to free themselves from suffering. Enlightenment brings three things: supreme wisdom, boundless compassion and love, and the power to free beings from suffering.

If we talk of Buddhism not as a religious teaching but as a historical development, then we can say, without contradicting Richard Gombrich, that the Buddha was the founder of the religion that began in India in the 5th century BCE. Siddattha had the unique historical role of introducing the Dhamma teachings into human society at a time when they did not exist. He is therefore the founder of what is called the sasana, the institutions and traditions of the religion.

His life as a model for Buddhists

The Buddha has now passed away and is no longer with us, so in this ordinary sense he can no longer guide his followers. Furthermore, because he is not divine he is not a figure who is prayed to for help and support. In this context. there are just two ways in which he continues, indirectly. to guide Buddhists today: through the story of his life and through the Dhamma teachings.

The life of the Buddha is significant for Buddhists insofar as it offers a model for them to follow. It teaches them what ways of life to avoid, what values to adopt, how to behave with others, what to say and not to say, and so on. Many Buddhists relate in this way to the human side of the Buddha rather than to his miracles. because this is the side that is accessible. and that can be emulated.

If Buddhists do not pray to the Buddha for help, you may well ask why they have statues of the Buddha in their temples. In the eyes of his followers. The Buddha's statue is entirely symbolic (nobody imagines that it is an actual likeness of Siddattha, the proportions and so on are completely stylised). Images of the Buddha are reminders of his life and of his achievement. And convey a sense of peace. serenity and dignity that can inspire meditation.

They also inspire gratitude for the care he showed in sharing his wisdom with humanity. And they mirror back to us the tranquillity and wisdom that we need to develop in ourselves. For all these reasons, the Buddha remains a central figure in the religious life of Buddhists today.

Questions:

1. How do therava vs Mahayana think of the Buddha- divine, prophet?

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2. Explain how there can be other Buddhas in Buddhsm?.

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3. Explain the importance of the Buddha as a source of authority and as a role model.

Assessment Questions (Choose one):

2 Assess the claim that the birth narratives of the Buddha are not important for Buddhists today  or

Assess-the-view-that-the-fours-sights-were-the-key-events-in-the-Buddha  (12)

or

Evaluate the claim none of the different interpretations of the life of the Buddha are sucessful.

Watch and make notes on the life of the Buddha

Read Side on the 10 acts of the Buddha

Complete your revision guide