BUDDHISM

A Level Religious Studies

Buddhist Teachings

Key Moral Principles Unit 1.4 

Introduction

In Buddhism Morality with out a God measn there are no 10 commandemnts.  There is guidance on how to approach ethics but thereis always a debate as to whether suc guidance serves the  purpose of gaining good karma and a pleasant rebirth or just becoming a compassionate being. The rich diversity of Buddhism apporaches to ethics accorss tradtions suggestions there is no one buddhist ethic.  The Buddha it seems included ethical guidance right from the beginning in the eigtfold path under a group of practices that became known as Sīla, (Pāli), Sanskrit śīla, in Buddhism, morality, or right conduct; sīla comprises three stages along the Eightfold Path—right speech, right action, and right livelihood. Evil actions are considered to be the product of defiling passions (see āsrāva), but their causes are rooted out only by the exercise of wisdom (prajna).

In Theravada, ethical action must always be motivated by ahimsa, the wish not to cause harm. In Theravada, ethical conduct on the Noble Eightfold Path involves right action, right speech and right livelihood. For lay Buddhists, the main ethical guidelines are: generosity (dana), the Five Precepts and the Six Relationships. ForTheravada monks, the main ethical guidelines are the 227 precepts ofa monk. In Mahayana, ethical action must always be motivated by bodhichitta, the wish to attain enlightenment for the benefit of others. Ethical behaviour on the bodhisattva path consists of the six paramitas or tran­scendental actions. [n Mahayana, advanced bodhisattvas are permitted to use skilful means (upaya) in exceptional circumstances to override traditional values, by applying their great wisdom and compassion for the spiritual benefit of others.

With reference to the ideas of P Harvey and B Bodhi.. What you need to know:

Topic         

Content

Key Knowledge

Religious Beliefs values and Teachings 1.4 Key Moral Principles

·         The Five Precepts.

·         (1) taking life; (2) taking what is not given; (3) committing sexual misconduct (interpreted as anything less than chastity for the monk and as sexual conduct contrary to proper social norms, such as adultery, for the layman); (4) engaging in false speech; (5) using intoxicants;

·         P Harvey and B Bodhi on the five precepts

·         The Five Precepts in Theravada

·         The historical importance of the five precepts in Theravada

·         The contemporary importance of the five precepts in Theravada

·         The Five Precepts in Mahayana

·         The historical importance of the five precepts in Mahayana.

·         The contemporary importance of the five precepts in Mahayana.

You need to understand the issues raised by Buddhist teachings, including:

·         how the five precepts, are understood in Theravada and Mahayana, both historically and in the contemporary world.

·         whether or not Buddhists agree on the significance of ethics of laity and ordained.

·         what is the relationship between the ethical guidancnce and ideas like karama

·         whether or not Buddhist ethics can be applied in the contemporary worlds to issues like the environment, equality, sexual ethics, war and pacifism, abortion and euthanasia.

·         What significant things P Harvey and B Bodhi and other relevant scholars have said about Buddhist ethics.

Key Words

pañca-sīla – the five precepts- the basic ethical guidance all Buddhist try to adhere to - abstention from:

dasa-sīla – the ten precepts- the basic ethical guidance Buddhist monks typically try to adhere t0- (6) eating after midday; (7) participating in worldly amusements; (8) adorning the body with ornaments and using perfume; (9) sleeping on high and luxurious beds; and (10) accepting gold and silver.

aṣṭā-sīla – the eight precepts - Occasionally, such as during the fortnightly fast day, they may observe eight precepts (usually the first nine, with the seventh and eight combined as one)

pātimokkha– the detailed monastic rules that are a further elaboration of the precepts.

Sīla– in Buddhism one of the ways in the threefold way, morality, or right conduct; sīla comprises three stages along the Eightfold Path—right speech, right action, and right livelihood.

The Three fold way – a shortened summary of the eightfold path- Sila- ethics, Prajna wisdom, Samatha- meditation.

āsrāva– defiling passions

Nikāya Buddhism – coined by Masatoshi Nagatomi as a non-derogatory substitute for Hinayana, meaning the early Buddhist ‘pre-sectarian Buddhist’ schools.

Karma  – Karma (Skt  kamma P) is a Sanskrit term that literally means "action" or "doing". In the Buddhist tradition, karma refers to action driven by intention (cetanā) which leads to future consequences. Those intentions are considered to be the determining factor in the kind of rebirth in samsara, the cycle of rebirth.

skilful actions – skilful actions or (Kushla) the Buddhist tradition focused on the path of the Bodhisttva to become a compassionate being

Ahimsa – (Skt avihiṃsā- P) to abstain from killing is eth first of the five precepts.  Killing, in Buddhist belief, could lead to rebirth in the hellish realm, and for a longer time in more severe conditions if the murder victim was a monk!

The Brahama Viharas – The four great abodes are general Buddhist qualities or vitures Buddhist try to develop. E.g. 1 Karuna (compassion), 2 Dana (generosity) Murdita (Sympathetic Joy) and 3 Upekka (even-mindedness)

Unit 1.4 Key Moral Principles

With gentleness overcome anger. With generosity overcome meanness.

With truth overcome deceit.

Speak the truth; give whatever you can; never be angry.

Dhammapada 223

The General Principles of Buddhist Ethics

The fourth Noble Truth, the Noble Eightfold Path, sets out the main charac­teristics of the Buddhist way of life. The Buddha presented this path as the middle way, a way of life that does not fall into extreme views or extremes of behaviour but cultivates balance and moderation. Buddhist ethics are not based on the pursuit of sensual or other pleasures (hedonism and utilitarianism), nor do they encourage extremes of deprivation, poverty or self-sacrifice (as does asceticism). The various moral guidelines in Buddhism should be taken respon­sibly but with a light touch.

Ethics is about how we behave and how we act in everyday life. An ethical system, whether or not it is based on a religion, offers a basic set of moral values and then sets out the types of action that are encouraged and the types of action that are discouraged.

The Five Precepts

The Five Precepts are the Buddhist version of a code of conduct or rules to help people behave in a moral and ethical way. Buddhists should follow the Five Precepts to ensure they are living a morally good life. This helps them to get rid of suffering and achieve enlightenment.

The five precepts are as follows:

Precept

An example

1. Refrain from taking life

Not killing any living being. For Buddhists, this includes animals, so many Buddhists choose to be vegetarian.

2. Refrain from taking what is not given

Not stealing from anyone.

3. Refrain from the misuse of the senses

Not having too much sensual pleasure. For example, not looking at people in a lustful way or committing adultery.

4. Refrain from wrong speech

Not lying or gossiping about other people.

5. Refrain from intoxicants that cloud the mind

Not drinking alcohol or taking drugs, as these do not help you to think clearly.

Ahimsa

It is important to practise the precepts over time as they are not always easy to carry out. The main aim of a Buddhist is get rid of suffering, and therefore following the Five Precepts is important as they help Buddhists to avoid causing others to suffer - Ahimsa. Following the Five Precepts is linked to kamma, as these count as skilful actions, which produce good consequences.

It is in the Pali Cannon we find the Five precepts

Whoever destroys living beings,

speaks false words, who in the world

takes that which is not given to him,

or goes too with another's wife,

or takes distilled, fermented drinks –

whatever man indulges thus extirpates

the roots of himself

even here in this very world.

(Dhammapada. 246-7)

Five or ten Rules?

Buddhist morality is codified in the form of 10 precepts (dasa-sīla), however these are not understood as commandments as Buddhists do not believe in a personal God as in Christianity.  Buddhists focus on developing virtuous lives rather than on keeping deontological rules. While actions are fact Buddhists.  (See topic at end)

The five rules which require laity 1- 5 and then monks 6-10 to abstention from: (1) taking life; (2) taking what is not given; (3) committing sexual misconduct (interpreted as anything less than chastity for the monk and as sexual conduct contrary to proper social norms, such as adultery, for the layman); (4) engaging in false speech; (5) using intoxicants; (6) eating after midday; (7) participating in worldly amusements; (8) adorning the body with ornaments and using perfume; (9) sleeping on high and luxurious beds; and (10) accepting gold and silver. Laymen are to observe the first five precepts (pañca-sīla) at all times. Occasionally, such as during the fortnightly fast day, they may observe eight precepts (aṣṭā-sīla; the first nine, with the seventh and eight combined as one). Normally, the full 10 vows are observed only by monks or nuns, who also follow the detailed monastic rules (see pātimokkha) that are a further elaboration of the precepts. Buddhist ethics is part virtue ethics.

Skillful actions

Skilful is another way of saying ‘right’. The Eightfold Path (magga) suggests that ‘right’ action and ‘right’ thoughts are ways of acting skilfully. This is based on the idea that positive thoughts and actions are deliberate and require skill. A ‘right’ action may be harder to do than a selfish or lazy action, which is why it takes skill, effort, energy and determination.

In contrast, unskilful thoughts and actions are influenced by desire, greed, hatred or anger. These feelings are inevitable, but Buddhists try to turn unskilful thoughts and actions into skilful ones. Recognising the difference between the two and working to develop ‘right’ thoughts and actions takes skill.

Buddhists use teachings from the Dhamma, such as the Five Moral Precepts, to help them to act more skilfully. They try to cultivate thoughts and actions influenced by harmlessness, compassion and wisdom. However, the Five Moral Precepts are not commandments and there is no punishment for not following them.

Internalising skilful actions

Due to the interconnectedness of all life, nothing occurs that is not dependent on or influenced by something else. This is the teaching of dependent origination. Buddhists work to internalise skilful or right attitudes so they become part of their daily outlook and behaviour. According to the law of dependent origination, skilful actions, driven by compassion and wisdom, will give rise to further goodness and wisdom. In this way, positive karma is accrued, leading to a more favourable rebirth in the cycle of samsara.

Buddhists try to develop four virtues:

1. loving kindness (metta)

2. compassion (karuna)

3. joy in others’ happiness (mudita)

4. serenity (upekkha)

These virtues are refined through meditation and practice in daily life. Action is not enough without understanding – meditation and study are necessary to realise the true nature of existence. This in turn supports Buddhists’ ethical development. Understanding the truth of anatta (or no self), for example, helps Buddhists to overcome selfish feelings and be more compassionate.

The Middle Way

The term Middle Way was first used in the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta. In this sutta, the Buddha describes the magga, or Eightfold Path, as the ‘middle way’ between extremes of indulgence and self-punishment. Siddhartha Gautama himself, before he became the Buddha, caused himself to suffer through hunger in an effort to understand suffering. Many other holy men would punish their bodies to overcome their physical desires. In contrast, the Middle Way calls for moderation and balance.

Questions:

1.    What is the general Buddhist attitude to ethics?

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2.    Explain how ethics or morality is related to other teachings in Buddhism.

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3.    Explain how Ahimsa or non-violence might be a theme running through each of the five precepts.

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4.    The Dhammapada offers guidance to ‘Speak the truth’ Which aspect of the Buddhist wider teaching might this be a reference to? Why do you think positive action is an important aspect in Buddhist ethics?

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5.    Explain what are skilful actions?

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6.    How might Buddhists try to internalise skilful actions?

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Theravada Buddhist Ethics

The Theravada scholar Walpola Rahula emphasises that the key values underlying all ethical conduct in Buddhism are love and compassion.

Ethical conduct (sila) is built on the vast conception of universal love and compassion for all living beings, on which the Buddha's teaching is based. It is regret­table that many scholars forget this great ideal of the Buddha's teaching, and indulge in only dry philosophical and metaphysical divagations when they talk and write about Buddhism. The Buddha gave his teaching 'for the good of the many, for the happiness of the many, out of compassion for the world'.

Walpola Rahula, What the Buddha Taught

In Theravada historically and the earlier “Nikaya Buddhist traditions” it arose from some types of action are thought of as good and some are considered bad: the main criterion is related to intention, and the deter­mining factor is whether we are acting out of selfish desire and craving, out of anger or hatred, or out of mindlessness or ignorance. Any actions that are motivated in this way will in the end cause suffering to ourselves and to others. On the other hand, if our actions are motivated by love and compassion they will bring well-being and happiness to ourselves and to others.

The history of ethics in Theravada

In Theravada Buddhism, ethical behaviour depends ultimately on the mind and not on the body. Yet the Buddha gave specific advice about which actions are generally harmful and should be avoided. On the basis of this advice, Buddhism has developed various types of ethical guidance that Buddhists do their best to follow. It is important to add, however, that Buddhist ethical rules are never dogmatic or rigid. It is accepted that everyone will do their best and there is a general atmosphere of moral tolerance. The ethical disciplines of Buddhism can be divided into the guidelines for lay people and the guidelines for monastics (monks and nuns).  One key early idea was what to do with the pre Buddhist ethic of ahimsa

Ahimsa

Killing, in Buddhist belief, could lead to rebirth in the hellish realm, and for a longer time in more severe conditions if the murder victim was a monk. Saving animals from slaughter for meat is believed to be a way to acquire merit for better rebirth. These moral precepts have been voluntarily self-enforced in lay Buddhist culture through the associated belief in karma and rebirth. The Buddhist texts not only recommended Ahimsa, but suggest avoiding trading goods that contribute to or are a result of violence:

‘These five trades, O monks, should not be taken up by a lay follower: trading with weapons, trading in living beings, trading in meat, trading in intoxicants, trading in poison’.  — Anguttara Nikaya V.177,

Unlike lay Buddhists, transgressions by monks do invite sanctions. Full expulsion of a monk from sangha follows instances of killing, just like any other serious offense against the monastic nikaya code of conduct

Theravada morality and the four-fold Sangha.

When you become a Buddhist you begin by taking the Three Refuges, refuge in the Buddha, Dharma and Sangha. The main commitment is to refrain from harming others and to adopt the approach of non-violence (ahimsa). Non­violence is another of the fundamental principles of Buddhist ethics.

In this world hate never yet dispelled hate. Only love dispels hate.

Dhammapada 5

Lay people can also take one or several of the Five Precepts, which are five basic vows that underpin the Buddhist way of life. The Five Precepts are: I undertake to refrain from killing. I undertake to refrain from taking what is not freely given. I undertake to refrain from misusing sexuality. I undertake to refrain from harmful speech. I undertake to refrain from taking intoxicants.

These are reasonably self-explanatory, but there are one or two differences between the Theravada Buddhist understanding of the precepts and, say, any correspond­ing commandments in the Bible. In Buddhism, killing refers not only to human beings but also to animals, even insects. "taking what is not freely given' means stealing in any of its forms, not just stealing possessions but, for example, wasting your employer's time. Misusing sexuality is generally interpreted as using sexual relationships in a way that causes harm to someone else, so it is very broad and can include adultery, incest, rape, paedophilia and so on. False or harmful speech includes lying, slander, harsh words and idle gossip. Intoxicants are discouraged because they cloud our minds and impair our judgement, and, as a result, we might perform actions that we will later regret. Such intoxicants include alcohol and non-medical drugs. Some modern teachers also include tobacco, which is considered harmful to both body and mind.

The Buddha's advice was practical. And he often gave the reasons behind his guidance so that people would be convinced. We all know that, if someone tells us not to do something. That is not usually enough to stop us from doing it; we need reasons. So, for example, he said that drinking alcohol is bad because it wastes money, leads to quarrels, makes you ill, gives you a bad reputation, leads you to do immoral things you will later regret, and weakens the brain. As for gambling. he said it is bad because, if you lose, you lose money; if you win, you make enemies, nobody trusts you, friends despise you and nobody will want to be married to you.

Set your heart on doing good. Do it over and over again and you will be filled with joy.

Dhommapada 118

In the Noble Eightfold Path, ethical conduct includes three factors which overlap with the Five Precepts and Six Relationships:

1. Right action encourages honourable and honest conduct. In particular, we should not kill, steal, misuse sexuality or take intoxicants, and we should not engage in activities considered dishonest, such as gambling.

2. Right speech means refraining from: telling lies backbiting and slander, and any talk that brings about disunity, disharmony or hatred between people harsh, rude, impolite words, or speech that is malicious and deliberately sets out to hurt someone idle gossip, or useless chatter which wastes time and misuses the power of speech

3. Right livelihood means choosing a profession or a job that does not harm others and does not oblige us to break any of the Five Precepts. The types of job to avoid include trading in weapons or drugs, selling alcohol, killing ani­mals (e.g. working in a slaughterhouse or as a fisherman), being a lawyer, a politician or a journalist if this involves lying.

Karma in early Buddhist thought

Early Buddhist schools seemed on the whole like Theravada today argue your karma is what you create and not what others do for you.  In the Buddhas day Brahmin priest could be paid to say special prayers at your funeral so you could have a good reincarnation.  In contrast to the Brahmin priests it seemed the Buddha taught only you were responsible for your good and bad karma or merit.  Punna or merit making thus became to concern of most ordinary Buddhist where enlightenment was a unachievable goal.  That part of the eightfold path then – Sila /Ethics then was more important to them whereas for the ordained Prajna/wisdom and Samatha/meditation were more concerning and karma less so. 

Questions:

1.    What is Walpola Rahula’s, complaint about what many scholars forget about Buddhist ethics?

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2.    Explain how the ethical disciplines of Theravada Buddhism can be divided.

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3.    Explain what the five trades that should not be taken up by a lay follower of Buddhism.

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4.    What did the Buddha say about gambling and alcohol?

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5.    Explain the importance of Karma in Buddhist ethics?

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6.    What is merit making or Punna in Buddhism?

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Contemporary Theravada Buddhist understanding of the 5 precepts

Theravada includes many models for ethical reflection, including concepts of (1) karma, understandings of the Buddhist path as (2) a process of purification and perfection, and a concern with (3) developing moral sentiments, such as loving kindness and devotion. Today Theravada Buddhists continue to early schools focus on Karma and the importance of Sila for ordianary Buddhists for merit making.   

Lay morality in Theravada today

Lay morality rests on the principle that lay people aim to minimise their bad actions and maximise their good actions so that they have a better rebirth. Most lay people do not expect to attain enlightenment in this life, mainly because they are so busy with worldly things. Their goal is to gain a better rebirth and morality is indispensable for this. In summary, a lay Buddhist who follows the precepts and guidelines will be a responsible citizen, a responsible family member, and will try to be kind, respectful and appreciative of everyone he or she relates to. Buddhists will lead a life of moderation and try to cultivate generosity, tolerance and a non-violent attitude. Buddhist moral conduct aims to bring about harmony and happiness both for the individual and for society. If everyone lived like this maybe society would be more harmonious and peaceful.

The Theravada Layperson's Code of Discipline-

The Layperson's Code of Discipline- the Digha Nikaya -Sigalovada Sutta  is key for the laity. Theravada and Nikaya Buddhism as well as giving guidelines on what not to do, Buddhism historically encouraged positive attitudes and actions. Love and compassion for all beings, generosity, tolerance, patience and contentment are all cultivated by Buddhists. In his advice to a young man called Sigala, recorded in the Pali Canon, the Buddha explained how this positive approach can be applied in daily life within the framework of Six Relationships.

1.    Take care of your family. Respect, listen to and support your parents and look after them when they are old. Look after your children, see they are well edu­cated, find appropriate work and marry well.

2.    Take care of your marriage. Be loving and faithful to your partner and work hard at your side of the partnership. Husbands and wives should be fair to each other, trust each other and not squander joint money. They should also enjoy themselves together, and the Buddha even suggests that a husband should buy his wife presents and jewellery.

3.    Keep good company and choose the right friends. Keep away from those who will have a bad influence on you. Be kind to your friends, keep promises and help them in times of trouble.

4.    Develop good relationships between teachers and students. Respect your teachers, appreciate their help, be polite to them and work hard. Teachers should respect their pupils and give them the best education possible.

5.    Develop good relationships between employers and employees, or workers and management. Employers should take care of their workers, give them decent wages and fair work conditions. Employees should respect their employers, work hard and not waste time. Both should work harmoniously together and not complain about each other, but praise each other.

6.    Develop a supportive and harmonious relationship with the monastic Sangha. Earn money in a wholesome way so you can offer material goods to help them.

Monastic morality in Theravada today

In traditional Buddhist societies, Buddhists have the option to become monastics. If they decide to take this step, they follow a strict lifestyle. Like lay people, monastics take the Three Refuges and all the Five Precepts, but as soon as they ordain as a novice they take an additional five precepts: to abstain from a luxurious bed (i.e. high off the floor -a sign of wealth) to abstain from entertainment (music, dancing, shows, television) to abstain from personal adornments (i.e. jewellery, perfume)

Buddhist Theravada monastics do not eat after midday, although they can drink. One reason given for this is that over-eating or eating before going to sleep makes the mind sleepy and is not conducive to meditation. They take no alcohol at all. They should avoid places of entertainment, partly because these are a waste of precious time and partly because they can lead to sexual temptation. Instead of the sexual misconduct precept (of the first Five Precepts) monastics take a vow to refrain from any type of sexual activity.

As we can see from the list above, some of the monastic rules are culture­bound -in other words they relate to the social conditions of ancient India and might be difficult to follow today. For example, in the Buddha's day money was not common and communities traded by barter. As a result, a small number of the monastic rules have been adapted in some countries to apply to modern conditions.

A fully ordained monk in the Theravada tradition takes 227 precepts which are found in the Vinaya. Some of these relate to the practicalities of everyday life in a community: taking care of sick monks, wearing soft shoes, not preaching to a woman alone. Others relate to genuinely moral actions. The rules are recited once a fortnight by the whole community at a ceremony called the Uposatha. If any monastic has infringed a rule, he or she is expected to confess publicly to the community or in some cases to one other monk. The senior monks give punishments according to rules that are laid down, but only in serious cases can a monk be expelled from the monastic order and asked to disrobe and become a lay person again. There are four actions that lead to expulsion: sexual intercourse, serious theft, murder (or encouraging someone to commit suicide) and making false claims about having supernatural powers. Less serious actions lead to temporary expulsion, while for even lesser offences monks forfeit certain rights.

In Buddhism there is no equivalent to the excommunication possible in Christianity, where certain actions lead to the culprit's being forced out of the religion altogether. A monk is only expelled from the monastic order, not from being a Buddhist practitioner, and he could continue following his religion as a householder or lay man (upasaka).

Women probably had inferior social and religious status in the wider society of the Buddha's day, and the Buddha took a radical step in accepting women as monastics at all. Nuns have more rules than monks, however, and some of the additional rules for women emphasise the fact that all monks, however young and new, have higher status than a nun. For example, in a joint assembly nun should always take a lower seat than even the youngest monk. The nuns' rules may have been the only acceptable way of dealing with the social beliefs at the time the rules were made, but they remain the same today. Nevertheless, many monastic communities have significantly improved conditions for nuns over recent years.

In general, Buddhist monastics do their best to follow all their precepts and rules strictly, not only for their own spiritual training but also because they have a duty to provide an example ro the wider community. If discipline becomes lax, lay people will no longer respect monastics and may withhold their material support, so the system has built-in safeguards against moral laziness or corruption.

Questions:

1.    What is the Sigalovada Sutta  and for whom is it important?

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2.    Give an example of the Sigalovada Sutta framework of relationships.

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3.    Explain how Monastic morality differs from ay morality for Theravada Buddhists.

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4.    What happens on a Uposatha day?

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5.    Explain how a Monk can be expelled from the monastic order?

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6.    Explain with examples how the rules nuns are different to monks?

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Scholars on Theravada morality

Bikkhu Bodhi describes the Buddhas five precepts as “training rules”

“The Buddhist texts explain that sila has the characteristic of harmonizing our actions of body and speech. Sila harmonizes our actions by bringing them into accord with our own true interests, with the well-being of others, and with universal laws.”  In Going for Refuge & Taking the Precepts

Bikkhu Bodhi in The Noble Eightfold Path: The Way to the End of Suffering quotes the Buddha “First establish yourself in the starting point of wholesome states, that is, in purified moral discipline and right view. Then, when your moral discipline is purified and your view straight, you should practise the four foundations of mindfulness.” – Buddha  (Saṃyutta Nikāya  - SN 47:3).

Other scholars note the significance of the idea of karma for Theravada Buddhist ethics.

Karma according to Peter Harvey,

‘It is the psychological impulse behind an action that is 'karma', that which sets going a chain of causes culminating in karmic fruit. Actions, then, must be intentional if they are to generate karmic fruits’ The law of karma is seen as a natural law inherent in the nature of things, like the law of physics. It is not operated by a God, and indeed the gods are themselves under its sway. Good and bad rebirths are not, therefore, seen as "rewards" and "punishments", but as simply the natural results of certain kinds of action.“  Harvey, Peter (1990), 

Karma according to Gombrich, and Keown

“The Buddha defined karma as intention; whether the intention manifested itself in physical, vocal or mental form, it was the intention alone which had a moral character: good, bad or neutral [...] The focus of interest shifted from physical action, involving people and objects in the real world, to psychological process.” Gombrich 1997, p. 51

“Karma is not a system of rewards and punishments meted out by God but a kind of natural law akin to the law of gravity. Individuals are thus the sole authors of their good and bad fortune.” Damien Keown: Buddhism: A Very Short Introduction

Questions:

1.    What does Bikkhu Bodhi mean by saying the 5 precepts are training rules?

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2.    According to Bikkhu Bodhi what must precept practise the four foundations of mindfulness?

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3.    The Dhammapada 183 suggests what about the general Buddhist attitude to behaviour and morality?  

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4.    Explain what Harbey means by saying Karma should not be seen as  "rewards" and "punishments?   

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5.    Explain why Gombrich thinks intention is significant in Karamic action?

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6.    Who is the author of their good and bad fortune according to Keown?

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Mahayana Buddhist ethics

The principles of Mahayana ethics are basically the same as for Theravada and other schools of Nikaya Buddhism. The key difference is bodhichitta: the reali­sation of ultimate wisdom and limitless compassion which gives rise to the altruistic path of the bodhisattva.

The history of ethics in Mahayana

In the perfection of wisdom literature of the 1centurey BC onwards ultimate wisdom means the realisation of emptiness (shunyata), and the limitless compassion of the bodhisattva is the wish to bring all beings to enlightenment and the commitment to do everything possible to ensure this happens. It is because all actions are motivated by bodhi­chitta that they are completely selfless and are therefore called 'transcendental actions' or 'perfected actions' (paramitas).

Ethical actions in early Mahayana according to Nargajuna were those that are free of any notion of someone who is acting and someone else who is benefiting, and a virtuous action linking the two. Today the Dali Lama calls this selfish altruism.  Yogacara in the 4th Century cam to argue that ethical actions transcend this subject/object thinking altogether; they arise from the pure motivation that is possible only when we have realised no­self (anatta).

From the yogacara cittamatra or mind only Mahayana point of view, it is the motivation of bodhichitta that demarcates an action as ethical. The Lotus sutra had introduced the six paramitas or perfections /virtues of generosity, moral discipline, patience, diligence, meditation and wisdom are all expressions of bodhichitta in action. Latter these would be expanded to 10 to include ‘upaya’ skilful means.

Skilful means (upaya)

Characteristic of Mahayana ethics is the use of skilful means or upaya, which depends upon the ability of the bodhisattva always to know the right action to take in order to help beings towards liberation in any given circumstance. Skilful means is only possible when it is based on both compassion and wisdom, not only on the wish to help but on the wisdom to know how best to help. We might say that bodhichitta is what is meant by skilful means in Mahayana, that any action motivated by bodhichitta will naturally be of spiritual benefit to others. In practice, skilful means can only be used by more advanced bodhisattvas with powerful bodhichitta.  The idea of Skillful means was taught in the Lotus Sutra a 1st Century perfection of wisdom Mahayana text, in the parable of the burning house. 

Box 12.1

The Story of the Burning House

The traditional story about the burning house

illustrates skilful means. It comes from the

Lotus Sutra. See The Buddhist Scriptures,

translated by E. COOle, pages 203-206.

There once lived an old man who was weak in

health and strength but quite rich and well-todo.

He had a large house, but the house was

old and in a state of disrepair, with a thatched

roof and only one door. One day a fire suddenly

broke out inside the house and the building

began to burn from all sides. The old man

managed to get out but then realised that his

young sons were still inside playing with their

toys. He was beside himself with fear. He

knew that they were too young to understand

what fire is and what danger they were in, and

that was why they continued to play unawares.

So the old man cried out to his sons: 'Come

here, my boys, come out of the house! It is

burning fiercely. If you don't come out soon

you will all be burned: But the ch ildren took no

notice of him; they were neither alarmed nor

terrified and carried on playing. Nex1 the old

man thought of a plan to lure them out, and he

called to them to come out quickly because he

had lots of beautiful new toys for them - in

particular bullock carts, goat carts and deer

carts. When they heard their father's words all

the children rushed out of the house to see

their toys. As soon as he was assured they

were safe and sound, the father took them

down to the village and bought them the best

toys money could buy - ox carts!

What should we learn from this story' Was the

old man wrong to lie to his boys and tell them

he had lots of toys for them when th is was not

the case' The Buddha says in the sutra that he

was not wrong, because he had tried conventional

means and they didn't work, and this

was the only way he could save their lives.

The story is seen as symbolic. The burning

house represents samsara, the fire represents

the fire of the passions or mental poisons, the

only door out of the house is the Buddhist path

to liberation. The children's unawareness in the

face of danger represents our ignorance of the

causes of suffering. The old man is like the

Buddha, who inspires us to renounce samsara

and certain death. The three carts he offered

represent the three 'yanas' or vehicles of

Buddhism, while the ox carts represent

buddha hood itself

The most important implication of the idea of skilful means for Buddhist ethics is that the bodhisatva is free to perform any action that will achieve the goal of liberating others. The morality of an action is determined by its ultimate outcome and not by the nature of the action itself. This means that the bodhisatva is not constrained by the ethical guidelines of Buddhism that were described above. Even actions that in any other circumstance would be considered harmful -such as lying, stealing and killing -could be used as skilful means in a particular situation, provided they were motivated by bodhichitta. Buddhist teachers caution that the circumstances that might require someone to go against conventional morality and apply skilful means are rare. Conventional methods should always be tried first. Nevertheless, the principle of skilful means explains why Mahayana Buddhism tends to be more flexible than Theravada in adapting traditional guidelines to modern situations.

Questions:

1.    What is the key difference between Theravada and Mahayana ethics?

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2.    Explain what in essence are 'transcendental actions' or 'perfected actions' (paramitas) in Mahayana Buddhism?

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3.    Explain what Nargajuna says about the nature of pure ethical action.

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4.    What for yogacara cittamatra or mind only Mahayana point of view on the nature of ethical action?

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5.    Explain the idea of upaya?

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6.    In the parable of the Burning house who is the father and how does the teaching of upaya legitimate his is actions as ethical?

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Contemporary Ethics in Mahayana Buddhism

Mahayana ethics is that of the development of virtue and application of skilful means.  A contemporary example can be used to illustrate skilful means. Suppose an advanced bodhisattva with tremendous compassion and wisdom had been alive in Hitler's day and could have foreseen that Hitler would cause great suffering and death to many people. It is conceivable that such a bodhisattva might have applied skilful means in order to prevent Hitler from doing this -thereby saving millions of people from suffering and saving Hitler from the bad karmic consequences of his own actions. We could imagine that the skilful means might involve killing Hitler, which in any other situation would be a harmful thing to do but in this case could be seen as a moral action according to Mahayana ethics. Such pre-emptive action, though, is only moral if it is genuinely motivated by the highest and most selfless compassion and wisdom, totally free of any hint of self-interest or aggression.

Both the Theravada and the Mahayana models of ethics place ethical conduct firmly within the framework of a graduated spiritual path. However, some Mahayana schools place little emphasis on the gradual approach and express ethics differently. Two of these schools are Zen Buddhism and Pure Land Buddhism.

Ethics in Zen Buddhism

Dogen (1200-53) established the Soto school of Zen in Japan, which emphasised a strict and simple life of monastic discipline. After many centuries, during which Buddhist monasteries had become rather prosperous and comfortable, Dogen advocated a monastic life of poverty and simplicity whose focus was on spiritual practice and the effort to be of benefit to others. This was seen as part of a return to the true Buddhism taught by the Buddha in ancient India.

Soto Zen sees both zazen meditation and ethics as ways to make manifest one's inherent buddha nature. If people already have the buddha nature (tathagata­gaTbha), why do they need to exert themselves to attain buddhahood? Ethical conduct and meditation are not methods to attain enlightenment, but are themselves enlightenment; they are ways of expressing the buddha nature that is inherent in us.

The Rinzai school of Zen, founded in Japan by Eisai (1141-1215), combines the principles of skilful means (upaya) and buddha nature (tathagatagaTbha) to create a distinctively dramatic form of Buddhism. Buddhist masters enforce discipline and communicate the Dharma by means of eccentric methods such as shouting and beating. These constitute skilful means since it is believed that peaceful meditation alone is not powerful enough to bring such defiled I I beings as ourselves to enlightenment. Students sometimes have to follow a tough discipline and extreme physical conditions as part of their training.

The methods used in Rinzai are aimed at bringing about sudden glimpses of enlightenment (satori), which are possible because the buddha nature is always present within.

Ethics in True Pure Land Buddhism

Shinran (1173-1263), the founder of the school of True Pure Land, also known as Shin Buddhism, was extremely sceptical about the Buddhist teachings on ethical conduct. He felt that human beings are helplessly full of passion and depravity and are ignorant of what is truly good and evil. Even in the case of those who try to follow a path of virtue, ethical action only becomes a source of pride and self-righteousness and a cause for loss of faith in Amida Buddha. The only way to make spiritual progress is to put one's total reliance on the power and blessing of Amida Buddha.

Shinran criticised the Buddhist attitude of trying to earn merit by following moral guidelines. He said 'even a good man will be received in Buddha's land, how much more a bad man' -emphasising the mercy of Amida Buddha. By relying on Amida Buddha we remain humble in the thought that we ourselves do not have the power to effect the personal transformation necessary to attain enlightenment.

In Shin Buddhism, there is no monastic celibacy. A small number of married clergy perform certain rituals and ceremonies, but there are no traditional monastic ethics based on the Vinaya. Discipline in Pure Land Buddhism is the mental discipline of remembering the presence of Amida Buddha throughout one's everyday life. Although this sounds quite simple, it is not, because main­taining genuine devotion to Amida all day and every day requires tremendous mental effort and diligence.

Questions:

1.    How might a Mahayana Buddhist justify pre-emptive murder as ethical?

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2.    Explain what in Soto Zen it means to say morality conduct and meditation are not methods to attain enlightenment, but are themselves enlightenment?

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3.    Explain how as shouting and beating might be seen as ethical in Rinzai.

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4.    The Dhammapada offers guidance to ‘Speak the truth’ Which aspect of the Buddhist wider teaching might this be a reference to? Why do you think positive action is an important aspect in Buddhist ethics?

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5.    Explain how remembering the presence of Amida Buddha throughout one's everyday life is related to ethics in True Pure land Buddhism?

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Applied ethics in Buddhism

To illustrate how a Buddhist might approach some of the ethical problems of today, we will look at the examples of topics in Buddhism that come up in yr 13- War and Pacifism, Vegetarianism, abortion, and Euthanasia. It is important to remember that Buddhist ethics vary in emphasis from one tradition to another, so there is no single 'Buddhist' approach to any of these questions. All we can do is outline possible approaches.

War and pacifism

Violent ways of punishing criminals and prisoners of war was not explicitly condemned in Buddhism, but peaceful ways of conflict resolution and punishment with the least amount of injury were encouraged. The early texts condemn the mental states that lead to violent behaviour.  More next year!

Vegetarianism

There are many different views on vegetarianism, which make it the subject of lively debate within Buddhism. Buddhists consider that the karmic effects of eating meat and fish are quite different from the effects of slaughtering animals and fish for market. It is easy to eat a hamburger, but how easy would you find it to slit the throat of a cow? Nevertheless, eating meat and fish is a way of participating in the chain of activities that cause animals to be killed for food, so there is some karmic responsibility involved. Many Buddhists believe that vegetarianism is the only option if they are to be true to the principles of not killing and non-violence. The Pure Land school in Japan does not consider ethical action as important as devotional practice to Amida Buddha, so it rapidly became very popular with fishermen. The Japanese eat a lot of fish because the geography of their country supports little agriculture. Theravadins are generally not vegetarians, and Tibetans live in a climate where vegetarianism is impractical.

Some Buddhists argue that modern methods used to raise farm animals and slaughter them are so insensitive that they cause tremendous suffering to the animals as well as producing unhealthy meat. They argue that vegetarianism is the only option. Other Buddhists point out that vegetarianism is not really a solution because of the enormous number of insects killed through the use of pesticides on vegetable crops.

Medical ethics- Abortion

How would a Buddhist decide whether or not abortion is a moral activity? Buddhists do not believe in a creator God. Abortion is therefore not sacrilegious in the way they might be to followers of other faiths. Motivation would be the determining factor. For example, in the case of abortion on demand, if one chose to abort a child to satisfy one's own desire to have a more comfortable life, that would be unethical, whereas, if one chose abortion to prevent harm to the mother of child one could be acting out of compassion and the action would be ethical. The question for Buddhists is whether an embryo can be considered a person or animal. Technically, this would depend on whether a consciousness has joined with the embryo or not.

Traditionally, Buddhists consider that the consciousness joins the embryo at fertilisation, but some contemporary teachers have said that the point in time when this occurs varies from case to case and is difficult to determine. Some Buddhist masters say that it is possible that in the first few days an embryo is not a complete being with body and mind and that therefore early abortion may be ethical. If this were not the case, however, Buddhists would not wish to sacrifice the life of a foetus, since all lives are equally precious.  A foetus is considered to be a living being in the sense that it is endowed with both a body and a mind.

The karmic consequences of killing another human therefore apply to abortion. Motivation is important. If I abort my unborn baby for selfish reasons -the timing is inconvenient, I don't want to give up my career, I think I don't have the right circumstances to bring up a child and so on -then this is an uneth­ical act. There may be mitigating circumstances, such as when the mother's life is threatened by her pregnancy. This is a difficult case, since choosing abortion is tantamount to saying that the mother's life is more important than the life of the child. In Buddhism all lives are equally precious. If an abortion is car­ried out reluctantly for medical reasons, there are purification practices in Buddhism to counteract its negative karmic effects.

Medical ethics- Euthanasia

Buddhists are not unanimous in their view of euthanasia, and the teachings of the Buddha don't explicitly deal with it. Most Buddhists (like almost everyone else) are against involuntary euthanasia. Their position on voluntary euthanasia is less clear.

States of mind

The most common position is that voluntary euthanasia is wrong, because it demonstrates that one's mind is in a bad state and that one has allowed physical suffering to cause mental suffering. Meditation and the proper use of pain killing drugs should enable a person to attain a state where they are not in mental pain, and so no longer contemplate euthanasia or suicide. Buddhists might also argue that helping to end someone's life is likely to put the helper into a bad mental state, and this too should be avoided.

Avoiding harm

Buddhism places great stress on non-harm, and on avoiding the ending of life. The reference is to life - any life - so the intentional ending of life seems against Buddhist teaching and voluntary euthanasia should be forbidden. Certain codes of Buddhist monastic law explicitly forbid it. Lay-people do not have a code of Buddhist law, so the strongest that can be said of a lay person who takes part in euthanasia is that they have made an error of judgement.

Karma

Buddhists regard death as a transition. The deceased person will be reborn to a new life, whose quality will be the result of their karma. This produces two problems. We don't know what the next life is going to be like. If the next life is going to be even worse than the life that the sick person is presently enduring it would clearly be wrong on a utilitarian basis to permit euthanasia, as that shortens the present bad state of affairs in favour of an even worse one. The second problem is that shortening life interferes with the working out of karma, and alters the karmic balance resulting from the shortened life. According to Theravada commentaries, there are five requisite factors that must all be fulfilled for an act to be both an act of killing and to be karmically negative. These are: (1) the presence of a living being, human or animal; (2) the knowledge that the being is a living being; (3) the intent to kill; (4) the act of killing by some means; and (5) the resulting death. If a person is in a persistent vegetative state and on Buddhist ideas of the 5 kandhas not considered a human being then it cannot be called killing or if someone who is in a PVS state.

Euthanasia as suicide

Another difficulty comes if we look at voluntary euthanasia as a form of suicide. The Buddha himself showed tolerance of suicide by monks in two cases. The Japanese Buddhist tradition includes many stories of suicide by monks, and suicide was used as a political weapon by Buddhist monks during the Vietnam war. But these were monks, and that makes a difference. In Buddhism, the way life ends has a profound impact on the way the new life will begin. So a person's state of mind at the time of death is important - their thoughts should be selfless and enlightened, free of anger, hate or fear. This suggests that suicide (and so euthanasia) is only approved for people who have achieved enlightenment and that the rest of us should avoid it.

Questions:

1.    What is the general Buddhist attitude to war and pacifism?

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2.    Explain are all Buddhists vegetarian? Why / Why not?

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3.    Explain Buddhist attitudes to abortion.

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4.    Explain Buddhist attitudes to Euthanasia?

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Classifying the Buddhist ethical system

Virtue ethics?

Generally, Buddhist ethics can be considered an instance of virtue ethics, centred on the idea that the basis of morality is the development of good character traits or virtues, which, in Aristotle's system for example, include intelligence, wisdom and the ability to discern between good and bad. Acting ethically is not merely a question of 'What should I do" but more importantly a question of 'How should I be?' The Buddha did not place the emphasis on the idea of doing one's duty, but rather on becoming a kind, compassionate and wise person and then acting accordingly.

Situation Ethics

Peter Harvey has argued that the Mahayana idea of skilful means (upaya) is similar to Christian situation ethics because it allows ethical principles to be overridden in certai n situations in the name of wisdom and bodhichitta. Situation ethics was developed by Joseph Fletcher in 1966 in his book of that name, and has become a prevalent view within the Protestant churches. Fletcher claims it offers a middle way between the extremes of legalism or divine command theory on the one hand, for which there can be no exceptions to the rule, and antinomianism on the other hand where there is no foundation at all with which we can evaluate our morality.

Situation ethics does not propose rules, but rather suggests a guiding principle to decision making -that principle is love. Acting morally means acting in the most loving way in any given situation. This principle can be applied, for example, to the case of abortion where all the circumstances would be taken into account before a moral decision was made. Rather like the approach of upaya in Mahayana, situation ethics does not ignore or reject traditional values but is not bound by them. Both systems may therefore allow the act of 'compas­sionate killing'. There is a story in the sultas of how, in one of his past lives, the Buddha killed a robber to stop him from killing a number of bodhisattvas, and thus prevented the robber from suffering in the hells for aeons. The difference, though, is that in Buddhism only a very advanced bodhisattva is permitted to break with the traditional values, while situation ethics can be applied by anyone with a loving heart.

Utilitarianism

Another possible way of classifying Buddhist ethics in Western terms is by relating it to 'soft determinism'. Soft determinists tread a middle path between the hard determinism of philosophers such as Hobbes, Hume and John Stuart Mill, who assert that the law of cause and effect is universal and for whom, therefore, moral freedom is not really possible, and libertarians who hold that uncaused, unconditional choices can be made and that free will exists .

Kantian Deontology

Immanuel Kant, for example, believed that free will was essential for morality.

Emotivism

To resolve this debate, A. J. Ayer advocates a type of soft determinism which accepts that everything has a cause, but which defines particular actions as free volitions. An action is considered to be a free volition provided that: (a) if you had had the volition not to do the action, you would not have done it and (b) nobody compelled you to do it. For Ayer, we have responsibility for our volitional actions.

In order to explain the difference between phenomena that are caused and free volitions, some soft determinists distinguish between the internal and external causes of an action, for example between its circumstantial and psychological causes. It can be argued that, while the external causes are determined, the psycho­logical causes are not always so. This is similar to the Buddhist view which states that physical objects and circumstances are always determined through causes and conditions, that some mental decisions are determined both by physical and phys­iological causes and by psychological ones, and that certain mental thoughts or decisions are free to the extent that one has conquered one's own mind.

Questions:

1.    In what way is Buddhist ethics closest to Virtue ethics in general?

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2.    Explain how ethics or morality is related to other teachings in Buddhism.

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3.    What elements of Buddhist ethics are Utilitarian? .

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4.    What elements of Buddhist ethics are Kantian? ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

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5.    Explain how Buddhist ethics might be emotivist?

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6.    How might Buddhists try to understand determinism and ethics?

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Assessment Questions (Choose one):

2 Assess the importance of the Five Precepts for Buddhist ethics (12) 2019 Exam Q

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