BUDDHISM

A Level Religious Studies

Social and historical developments

Triratna 4.2 

Introduction

In Britian the biggest Buddhist community is called Triratna yet it is a relativily form of Buddhism and one which other east Asain traditions either reject or are critical of. Understanding the rise of Triratna Buddhism first in the UK and then beyond is central to the larger project of understanding western Buddhism.  Triratna is what Harvey would call a form of ‘protestant buddhism’ which arose in response to secularisation, Western culture and ideals.  The beliefs and teachings of Triratna Buddhism (formerly Friends of the Western Buddhist order) are shaped entirely by in the context of Western society and especially post enlightenment thinkers like Friedrich Nietzsche.  The way Triratna adopts wider Buddhist beliefs and teachings, reflects this western view of authority in a way that would be difficult for Eastern Buddhists e.g. Theravada, Zen or Pureland to comprehend. 

Areas such as importance of the three refuges, the unity of the sangha, the importance of spreading the message of Buddhism and the rejection of specific rules within the context of the sangha all are reframed by Triratna in a way that is both non-sectarian yet at the same time building a new sect.

Whether Triratna is successful in applying Buddhist teaching in a different culture, is contested and depends on your view.  The response of other Buddhist traditions to these developments has not always been positive and at times very critical of Triratnas lack of commitment to any historical and particular lineage. 

The ideas of James Coleman helps undera. Vajragupta and

With reference to the ideas of P Harvey and B Bodhi.. What you need to know:

Topic         

Content

Key Knowledge

Unit 4.2

The rise of Triratna Buddhism in response to secularisation, Western culture and ideals

·         The beliefs and teachings of Triratna Buddhism (formerly FWBO)

·         The context of Western society and wider Buddhist beliefs and teachings, of the beliefs and teachings of Triratna

·         the importance of the three refuges,

·         the unity of the sangha,

·         the importance of spreading the message of Buddhism

·         the rejection of specific rules within the context of the sangha.

·         The success of applying Buddhist teaching

·         The success of applying Buddhist teaching in a different culture,

·         the response of other Buddhist traditions to these developments.

·         the ideas of Vajragupta and J Coleman.

·         the ideas of J Coleman on Sexism and Power

·         the ideas of Vajragupta on sexual  

You need to understand the issues raised by Buddhist teachings, including:

·         how the five precepts, are understood in Theravada and Mahayana, both historically and in the contemporary world.

·         whether or not Buddhists agree on the significance of ethics of laity and ordained.

·         what is the relationship between the ethical guidancnce and ideas like karama

·         whether or not Buddhist ethics can be applied in the contemporary worlds to issues like the environment, equality, sexual ethics, war and pacifism, abortion and euthanasia.

·         What significant things P Harvey and B Bodhi and other relevant scholars have said about Buddhist ethics.

Key Words

Triratna – the three refuges (Buddha, Dharma, sangha) Official Title of main Buddhist group in UK.  Formerly Friends of the Western Buddhist Order

Western Buddhism – Buddhism in the West (or more narrowly Western Buddhism) broadly encompasses the knowledge and practice of Buddhism outside of Asia in the Western world.

Kalyāṇa-mittatā – a Buddhist concept of "admirable friendship" within Buddhist community life, applicable to both monastic and householder relationships.  Used by Triratna to describe the teacher student relationship.

Sangha – the community of Buddhists

Windhorse Trading – the business set up to provide economic income for Triratna in the absence of the Alms round.

The FBO files– the detailed online expose of the sexual and leadership scandal’s in FWBO/ Triratna.  

The five Charges of the FBO files - alleging: 1. Sangharakshita, lacked adequate training in the Dharma in India where his sexual activities came close to causing scandal; 2. that Sangharakshita put together an idiosyncratic version of Buddhism which has become the central doctrine of the FWBO; 3. that sexual experimentation within the order led to abuse of power and personal distress of heterosexual young men persuaded into a homosexual life style; 4. that a misogynist and anti-Christian viewpoint dominates the teachings; 5. that financial irregularity contributed to the FWBO's success.

Sangharakshita – Founder of Triratna Dennis Lingwood (b.1925) ordained name

the English Sangha Trust / Hamsteadheath Vihara– 1st UK Buddhist centre led shortly by  Sangharakshita in 1964-1966. Maurice O'Connell Walshe describes Linwoods or ‘Sangharakshita’s fateful incumbency’as ‘spurious ‘Buddhists’ about, whose self-invented teachings at best spread confusion and at worst, when combined with drug-taking and other practices, lead to moral degradation and personal tragedy. It is not only the right but the duty of true Buddhists to proclaim the genuine teaching and denounce imposters and spiritual demagogues…’

Dharmachari’ (Dharma Farer).   – in Triratna this is someone who is a leader or a Bhikkhu.

‘Dharma-Mitra’ (Dharma Friend). – in Triratna this is someone who is a learner or Shramanera (novice monk).

Single-sex communal residences – in Triratna their monastic like practice but these do not practice the alms round but instead become centres for workers in right livelihood businesses and opportunities to explore homosexual spiritual practice and thus deconstruct the nuclear family which — Subhuti describes as…’a fragile and unwholesome unit. It offers little real stability and happiness and, by virtue of the clinging and delusion that it embodies, is antithetical to spiritual life’.

Right Livelihood businesses – in Triratna business set up such as Windhorse. Now a million pound set of connected trading organisations including cafes, meditation centres publications, and more.

The Six Characteristics –  Triratna’s own description of its six general strategic areas of communal activity (An ecumenical movement, Going for Refuge, A unified Order, A emphasis on spiritual friendship, Teamwork, Importance of Art) that it is invested in developing in its approach to building its western interpretation of Buddhism.

The Triratna Buddhist Manifesto – a key Triratna bureaucratic document which outlines its business plan and approach described as ‘the principles of the Triratna Community).

Ecumenical Buddhism– in Triratna claims to be interested in developing an approach to Buddhism that acceptably borrows from Theravada and Mahayana.

Critical ecumenicism– in Triratna the term given to its ‘pic-and -mix approach to adopting varied aspects of different Buddhist traditions without acknowledging the difficulty of adopting aspects from contradictory traditions..

Three jewels– in Triratna the 3 refuges- I take refuge in the Buddha, Sangha, Dharma have their own meaning- e.g.s The Buddhist teachings using ‘upaya’ blend various traditions and western thought e.g. Fredrich Nietzsche, Consumerism, Ethical Relativism. The Buddha is important but so are Bodhisattvas and Sangharakshita is practically on a power with the Buddha.  The Sangha is less Monk and Novice, but renunciants follow ‘Sutra-style’ monasticism meaning a flexible take on chastity, economic activity / work, and ‘fewness’of possessions.

Subhuti– in Triratna after Dennis Lingwood second in command and successor as leader to Triratna. ‘Subhuto’ another honorific referring to the Buddhas chief disciple refers to the man who was .

Dharma– in Triratna it attempts to develop a ‘secular teaching’ that it describes as a middle way between “the superstition and ignorance so common in tradition and the reductive materialism of popular scientism”. 

Dharmacompanions– in Triratna Instead of monastic Bhikkhus and Sramaneras (Monks and novices) the two levels of ordination are ‘Dharma-mitra’ (Dharma friend) and ‘Dharmachari’ (Dharma-farer).

Mitratā– in Triratna ‘lovely friendship’ or ‘friendship in the beautiful’, which signifies friendship in the Dharma: whether between more experienced and less so or between those of more or less equal experience.

‘Sutra-style’ monasticism – in Triratna renunciation is ‘to be highly valued and supported’ meaning the practice of Chastity: brahmacharya, Fewness of possessions: Fewness of possessions: Careerlessness: Community living: but each of these has ‘flexibility’.

BBC 1992 documentary – A BBC documentary that exposed controversial practices and problems within Triratna- Triratna claims this was limited to a single vihara BBC that it was more widespread.

Guardian 1997 – One of the first newspaper articles which criticised aspects of Friends of the Western Buddhist Order (Triratna).

Vajragupta– Richard Staunton / Vajragupta- in Triratna an early practitioner who wrote an account of history of Triratna. He was born 1968 was trained at University as a sociologist, joined Triratna (FWBO) early 1909’s was ‘ordained 1994, leading Birmingham Triratna centre’ became 2005 director of the FWBO Development Team. Wrote first a book on Buddhist practice 2007 and in 2010 set out to write a ‘warts and all’ yet insider account of the Triratna story.   Some say he minimised the problems.

Zen- ev. Daishin Morgan– Abbot of Throssel Hole Priory in Northumberland a Critical voices from other UK lineages.

‘'higher evolution’ – its origins in the works of Nietzsche. Sangharakshita developed the teaching that someone who practises Buddhist meditation becomes a 'higher being' but justifying it by linking it in Buddhism; to the Tibetan rendering of a Sanskrit term for a realised being, 'Arya Pudgala' (Tib. 'Phags pa'i Gang zag) directly translates into English as such.  By developing deep insight into the Four Noble Truths and Dependent Arising, a person becomes an Arya Pudgala, and he or she abandons three spiritual fetters. The first of these fetters is the 'view on the existing group' which causes the belief in a substantial self, an actual independent being existent somewhere within the body-mind continuum.   This means that at the point of insight into the actual nature of self, there is no transformation of any individual being from a lower to a higher state.

Higher and Lower Beings; – Lingwood’s teaches "the real aim of meditation, is to transform consciousness - to make you a higher type of being than you were before you began practising it’ Using the scientific theory of evolution as a metaphor for spiritual development, referring to biological evolution as the "lower evolution" and spiritual development as being a form of self-directed "higher evolution".  Meaning those even other Buddhist not in the FWBO / Triratna community are lower beings.

A spiritual ‘master race’; – Lingwood’s assertion that FWBO / Triratna there is a commonality of teaching between Nietzsche and Buddhism and this results in a hierarchical teaching that the FWBO / Triratna adherent is more evolved.

The problem of nuclear family relationships, as trapping men; – Lingwood’s dharma that men are in a situation which is "all very much on the animal level" and "a really massive source of conditioning"  and ‘the single sex community is probably our most powerful means of assault on the existing social set up’

The Maha Mangala Sutra; – a well known scripture of the Theravada Buddhist tradition, the Buddha declares:  "To support one's father and mother,  To care for one's wife and children,  ...This is the highest blessing."

The Mother-Child relationship; – The Mahayana tradition appreciation of the mother-child relationship is the very foundation of the development of reciprocal compassion, which ultimately becomes the cause for the achievement of Buddhahood.

Sexual Practice and kalyana mitrata (spiritual friendship)  ; – Lingwood’s teaching that warns about heterosexual activity and asserts that homosexual sex is the better / best medium of kalyana mitrata  (spiritual friendship) to develop between  ‘Dharma-mitra’ (Dharma friend) and ‘Dharmachari’ (Dharma-farer) and thus achieve ‘higher evolution’.

Coleman, J.; – Author of (2001), The New Buddhism: The Western Transformation of an Ancient Tradition, Oxford University Press, p. 81 describes Triratnas history from an outsider perspective and criticises its lack of "spiritual lineage“ amongst other things.

Sexism and FWBO; – Sangharakshita considers women and men equally capable of Enlightenment and ordained them equally right from the start, he has also said he had "tentatively reached the conclusion that the spiritual life is more difficult for women because they are less able than men to envisage...something purely transcendental...“

Triratna

(Formally known as Friends of the Western Buddhism Order (FWBO)

The Triratna (FWBO) is probably the most important and academically interesting organisation for us to look at. It has a history closely linked with the first British Buddhist institutions and represents what is probably the first attempt to create a specifically ‘Western’ form of Buddhism suited to European culture rather than a ‘transplant’ of a pre-existing Asian form.

A Bit of History

 The Order was founded by an Englishman called Dennis Lingwood (b.1925) whose ordained name is Sangharakshita. He had been interested in Buddhism as a teenager and after his tour of duty during WWII, which was served in India, he remained there as a wandering ascetic and then ordained as a Buddhist monk in 1949.

During this time he studied for a time in the Theravada system (because of the Theravada revival that had just begun in India) and then in the 1950s he received teachings and initiations from various exiled Tibetan masters. He thus claims to have a broad Buddhist education and perspective and this experience of both Theravada and Tibetan schools would go on to flavour the FWBO today as an eclectic form of Buddhism.

In 1963 he was invited by the English Sangha Trust to be the abbott of its Hampstead Vihara. NB: The EST raison d’etre was to firmly establish Buddhism here in England and it had been trying to appoint an abbott who could unify and lead the fledgling British Buddhist population.

He was dismissed from the Vihara three years later due to the incompatibility of the EST’s and his own views on how to practise. The EST wanted to promote an essentially Theravada form of Buddhism, since this had been the British experience of it so far, whereas Sangharakshita’s approach was more eclectic. Doubtless there were clashes of personalities within the organisation but one of the things that made Sangharakshita unacceptable to the Trust was his rejection of Vipassana meditation – which they saw as a fundamental teaching of the Buddha. However, the expulsion letter implied there were also issues to do with his conduct.

The founding of Friends of the Western Buddhist Order (Triratna)

Sangharakshita’s response was to begin his own organisation ‘free’ from official British Buddhism. He began by offering public meditation sessions in London and in 1968 he ordained 12 people into a new ‘Western Buddhist Order’. Originally this was typically Theravada in structure but then he redefined and changed the Bhikkhu status to that of ‘Dharmachari’ (Dharma Farer). Later, he would redefine the Shramanera (novice monk) as a ‘Dharma-Mitra’ (Dharma Friend). Hence the organisation would soon be known [first] as ‘Friends of the Western Buddhist Order.’ And latter as Triratna.

Questions

1. Explain what Triratna was formerly know as and what it means to say it is a form of Western Buddhism.

2. Explain some of key events in Triratna’s history

3. Explain the influence of Sangharakshita on Triratna Buddhism and what happened in 1968.

Characteristics

• Triratna (FWBO) clearly defines itself as a specifically westernised school of Buddhism that relates to and meets the needs of culturally European practitioners.

• It is independent of any Asian lineage

• It is eclectic and draws on many different traditions, most notably Theravada, Tibetan, and

Zen.

Triratna (FWBO) Mission Statement

·         The Triratna (FWBO) is an international network dedicated to communicating Buddhist truths in ways appropriate to the modern world.

·         The essence of Buddhism is timeless and universal. But the forms it takes always adapt according to context.

·         Now that Buddhism is spreading around the globe, the task is to create new Buddhist traditions relevant to the 21st century. During the past 40 years the FWBO has become one of the largest Western Buddhist movements, with activities in many cities and rural retreat centres around the world.

Sangha

The point of the Sangha is to support and promote each other in Buddhist practice. There are no clergy as such in FWBO but there are levels of ordination as mentioned above. The levels may reflect ones commitment to their practice. While there are no monks and nuns there are, instead, senior ‘Friends’ who offer guidance and support.

Celibacy is not required at any level but is recommended for periods of retreat and the precept concerning Sexual Misconduct is interpreted quite individually.

A senior Friend or ‘Dharmachari’ will often wear a special sash to denote their status and commitment as a Buddhist while meditating, teaching or whenever representing the organisation. Besides study and meditation, the Triratna (FWBO) Sangha emphasises the importance of ‘Right Livelihood’ in which order members band together to form ‘Right Livelihood businesses.’ Essentially this involves any work that is wholesome and does not cause harm. Eg. There is a large community of ‘Mitras’ who live near their Dharma centre in London and who run bakeries and shops together.

Another characteristic of the ‘Mitra Sangha’ is that they sometimes live together in single-sex communities. Being among like-minded people makes it easier to practice daily and also to live according to the Eightfold Path.

Vinaya

Vinaya is often an important issue among buddhist groups. In traditional Buddhism it is the Vinaya that gives the Sangha its strongest identity and connection with the historical Buddha Shakyamuni. Sangharakshita rejected the traditional Vinaya because it is not suited to a modern Western country. Instead, the vows of FWBO members are based on 10 precepts.

NB: These precepts should not be confused with the 10 precepts of a novice monk (shramanera) which enhance one’s renunciation of Samsara, rather they are concerned with avoiding negative karma and promoting good.

The ten precepts

1. I undertake to abstain from taking life.

2. I undertake to abstain from taking the not-given.

3. I undertake to abstain from sexual misconduct.

4. I undertake to abstain from false speech.

5. I undertake to abstain from harsh speech.

6. I undertake to abstain from useless speech.

7. I undertake to abstain from slanderous speech.

8. I undertake to abstain from covetousness.

9. I undertake to abstain from animosity.

10. I undertake to abstain from false views.

In Mahayana these are known as the ‘10 Non-Virtuous Actions’ which also have their positive ‘Virtuous’ counterparts. This is an interesting example of Triratna FWBO’s multitraditional influences.

”Clearly, to put into practice the principles of skilful action demands awareness and integrity, courage, and determination. What is skilful may not necessarily be either socially acceptable, or what one instinctively desires to do! Yet there is no way to Enlightenment except through skilful action.

As such, the Ten Precepts — as a complete embodiment of the principles of skilful action — are the indispensable foundation of practice for all committed Buddhists, members of the WBO and otherwise.”

Sangharakshita

Lineage

This is an important issue for us to consider. As mentioned already lineage is hugely important for traditional Asian buddhists who form their groups’ identity around a Vinaya and a lineage of master/disciple that can be traced all the way back to the historical Buddha. FWBO has certainly been criticised for breaking with tradition and ‘going it alone’ and other groups often doubt its authenticity as a ‘proper’ buddhist group.

Cultural Accretions

Sangharakshita’s break from ‘Traditional Buddhism’ is quite deliberate. Remember, he

Feels that most forms of Buddhism are not suited to a modern western culture. The main problem, as he sees it, is that most traditional forms of Buddhism are intertwined with the culture of the countries in which they established. Sangharakshita is also critical of the cutural ‘add-ons’ that Buddhism has adopted in these countries and believes that many practices are not necessarily true to ‘Original Buddhism’.

This point of view is not untypical from an English perspective. Remember, the initial British contact with Buddhism was during the age of Empire and the approach to understanding it was mostly scholarly. Furthermore, this initial pursuit of Buddhism was biased in that scholars assumed that an English understanding of the Dharma was more reliable than an Asian one. Therefore British Buddhism initially, but for many years, tended to ignore the Asian experience in favour of its own understanding.

So, while the FWBO might appear inauthentic to an Asian onlooker to a Westerner this approach might seem quite rational.

Questions

1. Explain what Triratna mission statement says.

2. Explain how Triratna is organised into it’s model of Sangha.

3. Explain the Sangharakshitas 10 Precepts of Triratna Buddhism.

4. Explain the importance of Vinya or rules in Triratna Buddhism.

Protestant Influence?

The view that modern Buddhism has become heavily burdened with cultural accretions that are not true to its origins is, perhaps, typical of an English protestant culture that rejects the elaborate ritual and dogma of Roman Catholicism for a more authentic form of Christianity found in the scriptures. Remember in post-Enlightenment Europe the Protestant Reformation and social changes permits people to question and adopt a more individual approach to salvation. A feature of Martin Luther’s protestant movement in the 15th Century was the preference towards relying on scripture alone for answers tothe big questions rather than the corrupt Church authorities such as the Pope.

• So to what extent is FWBO a product of this modern European tendency? Triratna (FWBO) firmly posits itself as a protestant form of Buddhism and, while not being antagonistic, it is explicitly critical of traditional forms of Buddhism.

NB: however, the question must be asked as to what extent this opposition is based on Sangharakshita’s academic knowledge of Buddhism or is early experiences and remonstrations for his improper conduct.

Problems?

Why might this be an issue? Here are some things to consider…

• Can Triratna (FWBO) claim to represent the Buddha’s teachings if it has no connection to a lineage? Is there a danger that in interpreting the Buddha Dharma from a Western point of view then much of the wisdom of the ‘living tradition’ will be ignored and lost? From a traditional point of view the Buddha Dharma is not just preserved in the scriptures but in the experience of the Sangha and so by disconnecting from it and ‘starting over’ one might be disregarding a huge source of Dharma.

• Triatna (FWBO)’s teachings are based on the experiences of one man – Sangharakshita – who’s experiences give shape to the Triratna (FWBO). How trustworthy a figure is he? In most traditional forms of Buddhism there are whole colleges of senior masters who influence and shape the Sangha and no one individual has any supreme authority, not even in ‘guru-centric’ Tibetan Buddhism.

• Will the Triatna (FWBO) retain its identity and be able to continue when Sangharakshita passes away?

Development

The Triatna (FWBO) certainly promotes an alternative type of society characterised by the Eightfold Path, ‘Right Livelihood’ businesses and even single sex communal living. To an extent these ideals may have been influenced by the social changes of the 1960s – many people who were interested in Buddhism at the time were part of the ‘sex, drugs, and rock n roll’ culture and Sangharakshita’s ideas obviously struck a chord with people wishing for an alternative society. In these early days the movement attracted such individuals, who often ‘squatted’ in vacant houses, but who went on to become serious practitioners and form the bedrock of its sangha.

The earlier decades of the FWBO had been driven by the ideology of Sangharakshita but in recent years, since his retirement, the organisation has shown more willingness to experiment with different practices, lifestyles, and there is even room to question the policies of its founder

Criticisms and Controversies

Triratna (FWBO) has attracted quite a lot of criticism over the years and generated various amounts of concern. This is undoubtedly a result of its protestant stance against Traditional Buddhism and FWBO defends its right to freedom of religious expression.

More serious accusations have occurred over the years however:

·         The insular nature of FWBO has brought it under the suspicion of being a ‘cult’. One feature of cult is a sense of separation from other groups and particularly a tendency to rely only literature and teachings provided by its leaders. In the past there was a tendency for some members to cut ties with family members in preference for a new family or sangha.

·         On the other hand, these tendencies could be a result of ‘teething’ problems in establishing a new religious movement. Both Order members and their families are unclear how to respond to the new lifestyle choices and frictions may arise. Recently this has not been an issue.

·         The structure of the FWBO sangha seems counter to the regular family oriented society. The Triratna (FWBO)FWBO encourages single sex communal living rather than family units. This is not only unusual in modern Britain but also in traditional Buddhism – remember, the ideal sangha structure is the ‘Fourfold’ model where monastics live in communities and lay people live as families. The Triratna (FWBO) has been accused of being ‘anti-family’.

·         Sangharakshita argues that the traditional sangha structure is not true to ‘original’ Buddhism and in fact is an example of an unnecessary ‘accretion’ over the years.

·         Triratna (FWBO) is sometimes criticised for being too eclectic and not more focussed on a specific path to enlightenment, ie. Bodhisattva or Arhat paths? For traditional Buddhists this is a crucial matter since motivation is the driving force behind the Eightfold Path. Is the Triratna (FWBO) too ambiguous about which path it promotes.

·         For example, there are tantric images and Mahayana prayers and Theravada meditation but what is the overall purpose?

·         One possible Triratna (FWBO) response to this criticism is that Sangharakshita seems to see all established and traditional forms of Buddhism in the world today as betrayals of Buddhist origins and in that, in fact, his form of Buddhism is the only ‘orthodox’ version that is trying to stay true to ‘original buddhism’ as found in the scriptures.

Sangharakshita’s personal conduct:

During the 1980s and 90s there were a shocking wave of accusations against Sangharakshita himself. It seems that he encouraged the idea that homosexuality can break down the barriers of individuality and self-centricity in communal living and at least one former Order member describes how he was sexually abused by him over a number of years. In particular the Triratna (FWBO) centre in Croydon was at the centre of such a scandal when one member committed suicide as a result of the abuse he was experiencing.

Furthermore, Sangharakshita’s views towards women are quite misogynistic which is reflected in the preference for all male residential centres in the early days of the movement.

·         It must be noted, however, that in recent times more female Order members tend to reside in single-sex communal residences which perhaps illustrates a shift from the ‘old ways’ of thinking. Perhaps this is due to the fact that Sangharakshita is now retired and has less to do with how the Order is run.

·         Sangharakshita has been criticised by his peers and preceptors in India for giving the impression that he was still a monk whenever he visited India. His organisation is involved with the re-establishment and support of Buddhism in India and in the 70s he attended meetings dressed as a monk while in fact he had disrobed years before and such deception created a lot of mistrust towards him during a sensitive time for Buddhism in modern India.

Conclusion by Robert Bluck

The Triratna (FWBO)  has made the most conspicuous adaptation from traditional Asian Buddhism, drawing on teachings and practice from several schools, while still claiming to be true to `Basic Buddhism'. This combining of elements is seen in their meditation practice, devotional activities and use of scriptures. Moreover, the WBO is described as neither monastic nor lay, emphasizing personal commitment rather than lifestyle, as part of a self-conscious attempt to westernize Buddhism, presenting teachings and practices appropriate in modern Britain rather than ancient India.

The movement's unusual organization, with centres, Right Livelihood businesses and single-sex communities, forms a spiritual and socio-economic matrix unseen in other traditions. This has had an experimental feel to it and the situation is still changing, with some members reverting to nuclear families and conventional employment.

The movement has remained controversial from the time of its origins in the 1960s counterculture, and has been criticized for being eclectic, doctrinaire, intolerant, male-dominated, anti-family and sexually permissive.

Much of the criticism is unfair, though its persistence is partly due to the Triratna (FWBO)'s self-imposed isolation from other Buddhist organizations. In recent years there has been a willingness to engage with other Buddhists, and this may allay some of the suspicions.

The role of Sangharakshita as founder, teacher and leader has been crucial to the development and character of the movement. In a sense the Triratna (FWBO) rests on his personal experience, teachings and practice of Buddhism. His own choices of Buddhist teachings, of meditational and devotional practice, of ethical precepts and personal behaviour, have become those of Friends, Mitras and Order members since the 1960s. As a new leadership takes over, the emphasis of the movement may change quite rapidly.

Opinions about the FWBO often remain polarized. Observers may perceive an aggressive approach, a distorted Buddhism and personal misconduct, while insiders may experience a confident inspiration, a link with the essential

Dharma and deep spiritual friendship. The rather doctrinaire approach seen in the writings of Sangharakshita and Subhuti may no longer be reflected in the attitudes of individual members. According to Waterhouse (2001: 146), the Triratna (FWBO) has overcome its early reputation to become `a major player in terms of a voice for Buddhism in the UK', and because of its active engagement with the media, it is often found `acting as an unofficial representative of UK Buddhism'.

Vishvapani (2004) argued that people engage with Buddhism in different ways in contemporary Britain, and may well `draw on the Buddhist tradition as a whole', so that the Triratna (FWBO) may be seen as `an accommodation between the cultural context and traditionally-derived Buddhist forms'. It remains to be seen whether the FWBO and other Buddhist traditions in Britain can engage with each other on equal terms as spiritual friends.

Questions

1. Explain what problems were with FWBO /Triratna.

2. Explain how Triratna developed from the ‘economy of gifts’ to right livelihood buisnesses.

3. Explain the main criticisms and controversies Sangharakshita’s teachings and practices of Triratna Buddhism.

4. Explain the importance of conclusions drawn by Robert Bluck in Triratna Buddhism.

Taking it Further Noted Scholars

James Coleman.

Coleman explores the appeal of Buddhism as an ‘exotic faith in postmodern society’ and considers its future in a global consumer culture.

Coleman argues today, many in western society find themselves seeking more satisfying spiritual lives. Faiths formerly seen as exotic have suddenly become attractive alternatives in our multicultural society. This is especially true of Buddhism, which is the focus of constant media attention, thanks in part to celebrity converts, major motion pictures, and the popularity of the Dalai Lama. Coleman argues that a new and radically different form of this ancient faith is emerging.

Coleman after investigating the contemporary scene, found that Western teachers have borrowed liberally from different Buddhist traditions that have had little interaction with each other in Asia, that men and women practice together as equals, and that the path of meditation and spiritual practice is offered to everyone, not just an elite cadre of monks. Coleman interviewed noted teachers and lay practitioners, as well as a surveyed members of seven North American Buddhist centers, to depict the colorful variety of new Buddhists today, from dilettantes to devoted students and the dedicated teachers who guide their spiritual progress. He also detailed where problems have arisen, especially with regard to gender roles, sex, and power.

•       In Ch 3  Western Flower – on the Growth of New Buddhism- Coleman charts the Spread of Buddhism from Asia through missionaries, the western theosophical society, the arriving of Buddhism in America at the Chicago world fair 1983, noting the  importance of Beat Zen (Alan Watts: the way of the writer), the Zen Boom and New Bohemianism, Shunryi Suzuki: just sit, Tibetan diaspora reach's the west, Trungpa Rinpoche: crazy wisdom, Jack Kornfield: American Dharma, New Approaches emerge (FBO), Toni Packer: Beyond Buddhism Crisis and renewal, Thich Nhat Hanh: engaged Buddhism. 

•       Then in Ch 5 Sex power and conflict, Coleman first engages with the issue of Women on the Buddhist Path, Men’s Buddhism and Women's Buddhism?, before dealing with Lust and enlightenment, Gays, Lesbians and the Buddha, Buddhism in crisis, the sexual conundrum.

Extract 1 Ch 3 Western Flower Page 81-82

“One of the most influential of all these Western innovators was Dennis Lingwood, an Englishman now known as Sangharakshita. Born to a working- class family in southwest London in 1925, he eventually came to head an international network of over one hundred independent Buddhist centers, retreat facilities, residential communities, “right livelihood” businesses, and educational, health, and art programs.

His first exposure to Eastern thought came in 1940, when he read a book by Mme. Blavasky of the Theosophical Society. After reading some Buddhist sutras, he made contact with the Buddhist Society in London and took the precepts. He was drafted into the British army during World War II, and it provided his passage to India. At the end of the war, however, he went AWOL and began almost twenty years of Buddhist studies in India. Although he never worked closely enough with any teacher to be recognized as a dharma heir, he had a wide variety of Buddhist contacts.

In the early years, he was most strongly influenced by the Theravadin tradition. In fact, it was a Burmese monk who gave him ordination and the western flower name Sangharakshita. Later he came under the influence of a German student of the Tibetan tradition known as Lama Govinda, who helped expand Sangharakshita’s already broad Buddhist horizons. His last important influence was the Indian leader of the untouchable classes, Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar, who led a mass Buddhist conversion of untouchables who had, of course, so long been stigmatized by Hindu belief.

Sangharakshita had both a penetrating intellect and tremendous organizational skills. He founded his own Buddhist organization at age twenty-four and just two months later he started publishing a journal. In 1957, he published a wide-ranging study of the Buddhist tradition, A Survey of Buddhism, which has received broad recognition even though he knew only rudimentary Pali and Sanskrit, and no Tibetan at all. Sangharakshita did not return to Britain until 1964, when the English Sangha Trust invited him to settle at the Hampstead Buddhist Vihara. He stayed there two years, but his unorthodox views and lifestyle eventually led to a falling out. He found that his view of Buddhism didn’t fit with either the genteel approach of London’s Buddhist Society or the traditional Theravadin monasticism favored by the Sangha Trust. His solution was to found his own organization, the Friends of the Western Buddhist Order (FWBO). Only a year after it was formed in 1967, he ordained nine men and three women as the nucleus of the Western Buddhist Order.

The FWBO grew rapidly in the following years, focusing not just on Buddhist practice but on building a broadly based Buddhist community that included local centers where members could meet for services and meditation, retreat centers where they could go for intensive practice, residential centers where they could live, and businesses where they could work.

The ultimate goal of the FWBO is nothing less than a radical transformation of society. As Sangharakshita’s second in command, Dharmachari Subhuti, put it: “The creation of a New Society is the purpose of the FWBO.” Its aim is “not to find a corner for Buddhists in the midst of the old society. . . . It wishes to change the old society into the new.”27 Although the FWBO certainly has wide-ranging doctrinal roots, even including some Theosophical influences, it differs from the other broadly based Buddhist organizations in that its centers are largely closed to teachers from outside their group. Perhaps because of its orientation toward community building, the FWBO is, in the words of Stephen Batchelor, “often perceived by other Western Buddhists as a self-enclosed organization, that . . . has limited interaction with the wider Buddhist community.”28

Extract 2  Ch 5 Sex Power and conflict (p.44)

“All this does not mean, however, that no Western Buddhist groups still maintain sexist doctrines. The most blatant example is found in the Friends of the Western Buddhist Order. The order’s founder, Urgyen Sangharakshita, has expressed the view in many of his writings that women are less spiritually capable than men. His head disciple, Subhuti, made this view quite explicit in his 1995 book, Women, Men, and Angels, in which he posits that there are five stages of evolution from Animal, which is the lowest, to Woman, Man, Artist, and finally to Angel, which is the highest. Although members of the FWBO are in no way required to accept the belief that women are somehow at a lower evolutionary level, the official sanction for such views at the highest levels of the organization obviously does not bode well for the equal treatment of its female members.”

Questions

1. Explain what Coleman means by saying Triratna is an exotic faith in postmodern society.

2. Explain what Coleman means by the Growth of New Buddhism.

3. Explain what Sangharakshitas and Subiti teach about women in Women, Men, and Angels.

4. Explain the position of Women in Triratna Buddhism.

Richard Staunton / Vajragupta

Richard Staunton (born 1968) was trained at University as a sociologist, joined Triratna (FWBO) early 1909’s was ‘ordained 1994, leading Birmingham Triratna centre’ became 2005 director of the FWBO Development Team. Wrote first a book on Buddhist practice 2007 and in 2010 set out to write a ‘warts and all’ yet insider account of the Triratna story. 

Extract 1 Homosexuality and Buddhism

Extract 3 Western Philsophy Nicheazh and Buddhism

Extract 2  Trouble with angels

Pg 73

The women’s wing did, as we’ll see, develop similar facilities, but it took longer. In the early days, it seemed that classes in Buddhism and meditation drew in larger numbers of men than women (whereas the opposite is true in many centres today). Perhaps the men were more easily attracted to Sangharakshita, and he could relate more easily to them (though many women say he was always encouraging of them too). But it was certainly the case that, initially, more men than women got involved. This meant that the men’s facilities developed faster, which attracted more men … and a self-perpetuating situation evolved. Sometimes, women lost their confidence by making unhelpful comparisons with the success of the men. 

P74

Sangharakshita repeatedly expressed his conviction that women could establish dynamic and vibrant situations of their own, and that to do so independently of men would be spiritually beneficial for them. He emphasized that they shouldn’t fall into the trap of thinking that the men’s projects were ‘where it was at’.

A group of women decided to form a new community, called Amaravati. They would have a ‘common purse’ – sharing their income, and making a bold attempt to live communally. It would be a more practice-orientated, retreat-like situation, with a daily programme of meditation, work, yoga, and puja. This was a more radical and intensive approach to community living than had been tried in the past.

In the summer of 1977 they moved into a large house in Wanstead, east London. The renovation of dilapidated old buildings features frequently in the early history of the FWBO and here the young pioneers were at it again. As one of their team, Dhammadinna, described it:

All the time we were up against our lack of skill and our unfamiliarity with hard physical labour, and there were often tears of frustration or rage as people struggled with difficult and unfamiliar jobs ... The experience was at times frightening – there was no one to bail us out, to turn to, or to hand things over to – and often painful and explosive. It was also extremely liberating as we discovered that we could do the work ourselves and that we could live happily together … and not only survive, but grow and develop.72

Dhammadinna went on to argue that it had been harder for them than the men: ‘… the move to Amaravati represented for women a much more radical change than did, say, the move to Sukhavati for men, as there was much more resistance and conditioning to overcome …’73 Women at that time could undervalue themselves, they could tend to let men always lead, and so be unused to taking initiative themselves. Consequently, the project had entailed an even more fundamental breakthrough, ‘Basically, we had done what many feminists were doing, but with a spiritual rather than a political perspective.’74

This is now Triratna’s official historical narrative and while his account is revealing some issues some reviewers who are former members of Triratna feel it also hides ‘whitewashes’ some of the depths of the controversy’s surround Triratna.  In an Amazon Review of The Triratna Story –– Stanley asks the following important questions about the sexual narrative within Lingwood’s teachings:

“… Take chapter 6: Trouble with Angels for example. Vajragupta starts by setting a broad basis for the events and developments that he is about to describe by sketching out the cultural and political milieu in which they took place. In his sketch he includes an apparent appreciation of ‘gay and lesbian liberation’ and ‘attitudes to sex and gender’. He then goes on to describe the emergence of the single-sex idea within the FWBO as it was then. The narrative that ensues covers a range of motivations that informed the spiritual logic and perceived benefits behind the setting up of single-sex communities, businesses and retreats. This range of motivations includes the possibility that, ‘the men were more easily attracted to Sangharakshita, and he could relate more easily to them’ on p73 to women’s ‘lack of skill and … unfamiliarity with hard physical labour’ on p74. One facet that appears to be agreed upon is that single-sex communities, businesses and retreats avoided ‘complex and potentially messy dynamics around sexual attraction and projection’ (p77). Also that they, ‘reduced anxiety around the whole area of sex, needing to impress women, and compete with other men’ (p72). Having cast his net so wide and considered such a wide range of gender types and sexual persuasions, how did Vajragupta – and in fact the FWBO itself – come to focus so exclusively on the provision of conducive and non-distractive contexts for the spiritual practice of heterosexual men and women only?

Questions

1. Explain wo is Richard Staunton and what is his importance for Triratna.

2. Explain how in Triratna a ‘self-perpetuating situation evolved’ developed and what this meant for women.  And what you think of the authors argument?

3. Explain the work of Dhammadinna.

4. Explain what was believed to be the importance of single sex communities in Triratna Buddhism.

EXAM QUESTIONS

1. Explore the key teachings of Triratna Buddhism (formerly Friends of the Western Buddhist Order). (8 marks) 2019

4. Evaluate the success of Triratna Buddhism in applying Buddhist teachings in the modern world.  (30 marks) 2022