Unit 2.2 The significance of the Tipitka

A Level Religious Studies

Topic 2 Sources of wisdom and authority

Unit 2.2 The significance, interpretation, use and treatment of the Tipitaka

Introduction

In Buddhism like any religion authority is in part derived from an authorial source or revelation. The earliest text which is throught to reveals Buddhists wisdom or prajna is eth pali cannon or Tipitaka. In Theravada, the status of the Tipitaka as the teachings of the Buddha and its collection and formation is clear but this is not the case for all forms of Buddhism.

Understanding Buddhism means understanding the significance, interpretation, use and treatment of the Tipitaka. To do this we must first know its different sections, along with their context. This includes the context of the Vinaya Pitaka and how this aims to produce a cohesive community, the context of the Sutta Pikata and its purpose to help in the search for Enlightenment and thirdly the Abhidhamma Pitaka. While the more difficult area for Buddhists it guides their interpretation and understanding of the Buddha’s teachings. Some consider it the work of the Buddha himself.

Yet the Tipitaka is not universally significant. The Tipitaka is the source of the Buddha’s teachings for Theravada but less so Mahayana. Its use, importance and impact as a source of wisdom in Buddhism thus varies. In this unit you should consider the ideas of D Keown and M Meghaprasara.

Topic

Content

Key Knowledge

Topic 2 Sources of wisdom and authority

Unit 2.2

The significance, interpretation, use and treatment of the Tipitaka.

· a) The status of the Tipitaka as the teachings of the Buddha and its collection and formation.

· The status of the Tipitaka as the teachings of the Buddha

· The collection and formation of the Tipitaka.

· b) The different sections, along with their context

· Vinaya Pitaka and how this aims to produce a cohesive community

· Sutta Pikata and the search for Enlightenment

· Abhidhamma Pitaka and interpretation and understanding of the Buddha’s teachings and a consideration of whether this is the work of the Buddha himself.

· The significance of the Tipitaka as the source of the Buddha’s teachings and its use, importance and impact as a source of wisdom in Buddhism.

· The significance of the Tipitaka

as the source of the Buddha’s teachings and

· The use, importance and impact the Tipitaka as a source of wisdom in Buddhism.

You need to understand the issues raised by the tipitaka, including:

· The Pali Canons role in Buddhism as a whole how has been used in Theravada and Mahayana, both historically and in the contemporary world.

· whether or not Buddhists agree on the significance of The Pali Canons.

· what is the relationship between The Pali Canon and other Buddhist scriptures?

· whether or not the Pali cannons teachings have had a significant impact on Buddhists.

· What significant things D Keown and M Meghaprasara and other relevant scholars have said about the Tipitaka.

Key Words

The Pali Canon – another name for the Tipitaka

skilful actions – skilful actions

Ahimsa – (Skt avihiṃsā- P)

The Brahama Viharas – The four

Unit 2.2 The significance, interpretation, use and treatment of the Tipitaka.

The Pali Canon or Tipitaka

Key Words

The Tipitaka – Pali Canon (three baskets, made up of the Vinaya Pitaka, the Sutta Pitaka and the Abhidhamma Pitaka); the corpus of scripture held to be authoritative by Theravada Buddhists

Vinaya Pitaka – the first part of the Pali Canon containing the rules and regulations for the discipline of the community of monks and nuns

Sutta Pikata – second part of the Pali Canon of scriptures containing stories and teachings of the Buddha

Abhidhamma Pitaka – third part of the Pali Canon of scriptures made up of the philosophical discourses and commentaries of later scholars

Cannon– a collection of scriptures that holds authority

Pali – an ancient Indian language

Pitaka – basket for storage of the original Buddhist texts

The Pali Cannon, or Tipitaka, is a large collection of scriptures, written in the ancient Indian language of Pali. The Pali Canon contains teachings of the Buddha and are the oldest complete collection of surviving Buddhist scriptures. They hold authority within Theravada Buddhism and also within some other Buddhist schools such as Tibetan Buddhism.

Initially the teachings of the Buddha had been handed down orally through a variety of Indian dialects, although this by no means suggests that the transmission was unreliable. Research has demonstrated that ancient techniques for transmission of oral literature in Indian religions such as Hinduism and Buddhism guaranteed a high level of accurate retention.

The first written version of the Pali Canon is thought to have been compiled in Sri Lanka in the 1 st century BCE. The word Tipitaka translates as 'three baskets' and refers to the original storage of the texts, written on long stitched-together leaves and organised within three discrete baskets according to the nature of the information the texts contained. The three sections, or 'baskets' (pitaka), were named the Vinya Pitaka, the Suta Pitaka and the Abhidhamma Pitaka.

Meghaprasara summarising the Tipitaka suggests it was written by Buddhists "fearing the corruption of the Buddha's teachings... preserve the Buddha's doctrine in its purest form…”, "as it was taught by the Buddha himself" and as "a treasure, bequeathed to the world by the supreme compassion of the Buddha" Bhikkhu Nanamoli summarises the Tipitaka as the Buddha's life as "lean and polished as a rapier" and that "these "books" were intended for recitation" Meghaprasara defend the validity of the Tipitaka saying it "Preserves the Buddha's doctrine in it's purest form" and "contains everything we know of the Buddha's teachings". Yet Keown notes "there is considerable disparity" between versions of the Tipitaka suggesting that the Theravada tradition has failed to acknowledge the historical critical questions about the text and its development.

The origin of the Tittaka is begins perhaps 1. With the original words of the Buddha. Then 2. Disciples memorise teachings, 3. 1st council- unanimous agreement on Sutta and Vinaya; 4. 300-400 years of oral tradition and 5. Malinda transcribes 3-1st BC.

Meghaprasara describes the 1st council when the Suttas and Vinaya were "approved unanimously" by 500 arhats. Then Meghaprasara suggests that a 2nd council was convined to "settle a serious dispute over the ten points". These Ten points included eating after midday- not a major event like the 1st and 3rd. Meghaprasara then describes the 3rd council as meeting to "Rid the Sangha of corruption" of "Those who held wrong views were exposed and expelled".

Questions:

1. What is the Pali Cannon?

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2. Explain how the tipitaka came to be written down.

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3. Explain the main sections of the Pali cannon.

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The authority of the Vinaya for the Theravada sangha

Key Words

Dharmaguptaka – one of the eighteen early schools of Buddhism

Patimokka – the 227 rules of the Buddhist community of monks to be found in the Vinaya; nuns have 311

Sima – a boundary that surrounds the temple or monastery

Upali – one of the ten chief disciples of the Buddha who recalled all of the rules of the Vinaya

Bhikkhus – monk

Bhikkhunis – nun

Dasa sila – ten precepts taken by monks and nuns

Sutavibhanga – the first book of the Theravadin Vinaya Pitaka

Khandhka the second section of the Vinaya Pitaka containing stories about the Buddha's Awakening and rules of etiquette for the monastic sangha

Parajikas the 'defeats' or behaviour that forces disrobing and expulsion from the monastic order

Pariva the third section of the Vinaya Pitaka containing a summary of the Vinaya rules

Uposatha days of renewed commitment to the dharma, often occurring on full moon.

Uposatha days .

In both Sanskrit and PalL the term Vinaya means 'discipline'. The Vinaya Pitaka, basket of discipline, contains within it the Patimokka, the rules and regulations governing the monastic sangha. The authority of the Vinaya carries most force within the unique setting of a monastic order as this was its original purpose. The monastic setting is usually demarcated by a Sima (boundary) that surrounds the temple or monastery. Although the Vinaya is specific to monks and nuns, anyone who enters the boundaries of the monastic setting, such as lay Buddhist visitors or those on retreat, are subject to its authority.

In all there are 227 rules for bhikkhus (monks) and 311 for bhikkhunis (nuns). This code of conduct was thought to have been introduced by the Buddha but developed as the sangha grew during the Buddha's ministry. An enlightened monk called Upali is thought to have recited the rules whilst arhats present at the council agreed their accuracy. For further information on the Vinaya and Patimokka.

This association with the Buddha and his leading disciples gives the Vinaya Pitaka a place of importance and authority in Theravada Buddhism and within some Mahayana traditions. The Vinaya rules were passed down through oral tradition and were eventually written in Pali in the Vinaya Pitaka at the Fourth Council (1 st century BCE). At that time the rules were also recorded in other languages. An early sect of Buddhism, the , left a written record of the Vinaya. This is the version of the monastic rules followed by most Mahayana monastic orders today. Tibetan Buddhists also have their own Vinaya, which developed in another early school of Buddhism.

As disagreement within the sangha grew, people approached the Buddha with accounts of misconduct, and the rules were created to address each situation. For example, the rule for bhikkhus and bhikkhunis regarding abstinence from sexual intercourse is said to have arisen as a result of the discovery of contact between bhikkhus and their ex-wives. The development of a code of conduct was important because the main goal of Buddhism is nibbana (nirvana), and conflict and misdemeanours would be detrimental to this ultimate goal. The Vinaya Pitaka contains guidance on how to settle disputes as well as the sanctions for those who commit offences. Clarke and Thompson point out that this provides a useful 'emphasis that the rules are all grounded on the realities of life'. Through the Vinaya we are able to build up a picture of what life was like within the early monastic sangha. This same way of living for the monastic sangha has been preserved within Theravada Buddhism to this day.

The Vinaya Pitaka contains the following sections:

· The Sutavibhanga, which contains the Patimokka which are the rules of discipline and training for monks and nuns. The dasa sila are the most important of these rules and are to be followed by all ordained bhikkhus and bhikkhunis. These ten rules were eventually expanded into 227 rules for bhikkhus and 311 rules for bhikkhunis. The Patimokka rules include a list of possessions members of the monastic community were allowed to own: three robes, an alms bowl. a razor, a needle, a girdle, and a water strainer. There are rules within this section which outline the protocol for alms rounds and the requirement that no solid food be consumed after noon. There is to be no storing of food to eat later, which makes sense in light of the Buddha's teaching on the Middle Way that avoids greed. The Suttavibhanga lists eight categories of wrongdoing for monks and nuns including the four parajikas which rule against sexual intercourse, stealing, murder and falsely declaring supernatural powers. If these rules are broken then the bhikkhu or bhikkhuni can be expelled from the monastic sangha. If other rules in this section are broken, the consequences would include a meeting of the sangha to deal with the consequences: penance, forfeiture, confession or a public admission that the action has happened. This section also contains rules for training bhikkhus and bhikkhunis, as well as rules for settling legal disputes. Monks and nuns cannot plead ignorance if they have broken a rule as they still have to accept the consequences of their actions. For example, they cannot claim that they did not know that a drink contained alcohol. If this had been consumed, it would still require confession, and ignorance would be no defence. Another example might be that confession is made if a meal is consumed after noon even if the monk or nun has lost track of the time.

· In the second section, the Khandhaka, you will find an account of the Buddha's life after his enlightenment, as well as stories about prominent disciples. This section also gives an account ofthe first two Buddhist Councils. Guidance on monastic etiquette and manners are also discussed in this section. Ritual procedures for initiation and ordination, as well as guidance on the organisation of the sangha can be found in this section. Also, the format of the Uposantha days ; the organising of retreats, dress codes; rules around food; medicine and caring for the sick; and how to deal with division amongst sangha members. From this we can see thatthe rules of the Vinaya are often very practical. Familiarity with the rules is reinforced amongst monks and nuns as they are regularly recited during the uposatha ceremonies at every new and full moon. This provides one way of preserving the dharma and discipline. Following the recitation of each rule, confessions of the breaking of the rule takes place.

· The third section of the Vinaya is the Parivara. This provides a summary of the rules and valuable guidance on how to observe the Vinaya. It is mostly used in monastic training to instruct and examine bhikkhus and bhikkhunis.

The authority of the Vinaya for the Theravada sangha, therefore, appears to carry normative force. That is, it directs an individual's behaviour within the monastic environment in two ways: (1) through their daily interaction with others; and, (2) for their own spiritual path and development. It is important not to see the term 'authority' in terms of Buddhists scriptures as directly related to some form of ultimate, overall metaphysical control or controller. The authority the Vinaya carries within the Theravada sangha is more a practical distillation of tried and tested. ways that bring success in the monastic setting. The correct or right way, then, becomes the best possible way. It is more a case that what the Vinaya brings is the wisdom essential for spiritual success. The various prohibitions and warnings can therefore be seen as positive keys to unlocking the fetters of attachment that can lead to suffering and falling away from the path.

Key quote

It is possible, I think, to identify four particular concerns in the Buddhist monastic rules as set out in the Vinaya: (1) the unity and cohesion of the Sangha, (2) the spiritual life, (3) the dependence of the Sangha upon the wider community, and (4) the appearance of the Sangha in the eyes of that community. (Gethin)

"governing the organisation of the Sangha" (Cush)

"Were it not for the Vinaya... there would be no Buddhism" (Thera)

"cultivating the virtues" "ethics is given a central place" "To regulate in all detail the life within the community" (Keown describe the Vinaya's methods and purpose)

Questions:

1. How many rules are there for bhikkhus (monks) and how many for bhikkhunis (nuns)? What issue does this suggest and why?

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2. Explain what rules seem reasonable for the members of the sangha to follow and what rules seem more difficult to understand or seem irrelevant in the 21 st century?

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3. Explain (Access an online version of the Vinaya Pitaka from the Pali Canon) why might it have been important to include these rules? Would they be useful in enabling the monastic sangha to live in harmony? How might these rules help bhikkhus or bhikkhunis on their path to enlightenment?.

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4. Explain why the Vinaya was formed and how it benefitted the early sangha.?

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5. Explain Which four rules result in expulsion from the order if they are broken?

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6. What sections is the Vinaya divided into?

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7. Name two things that could happen if you break the rules.?

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8. How is the Parivara used?.

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The wider authority and significance of the Sutta Pitaka

Key Words

Buddha sasana – teaching or doctrine of the Buddha

Buddha vacana – the words or sayings of the Buddha

Pratekaya-Buddha – literally 'alone Buddha', 'a Buddha on their own' or 'a private Buddha', is one of three types of enlightened beings according to some schools of Buddhism. A Buddha who reaches enlightenment and does not go on to teach

Brahma – the first god in the Hindu trimurti - traditionally regarded as the creator god

Upaya kosalia– literally, 'skilful means' describing the simplified way in which difficult concepts can be taught effectively to those who do not have the capacity (also known as upaya kausalya in Mahayana)

The Sutta Pitaka

The Pali Suttas are collections of discourses attributed to the Buddha and some of his early disciples. They were said to have been recited at the First Council by Ananda, the Buddha's most dedicated disciple. Richard Gombrich suggests that the corresponding Sanskritterm sukta means 'something that is well said'. This term was traditionally used to refer to the ancient Indian Vedic texts. Gombrich points out that, in using this term, early Buddhists were 'claiming a status on a par with the Vedas for the utterances of the Buddha' (cited in Gethin). Throughout the scriptures the phrase Thus I have heard' is used repetitively to add authority to the texts, indicating that they had been passed down from those witnessing the teachings of the Buddha himseif. Sutta, meaning 'thread', highlights the idea that there is a connection running through the different teachings of the Buddha. Sarah Shaw describes them as being like a tapestry, or rich embroidery, because of the repetition and cross-referencing of the teachings.

They are seen as Buddha vacana, 'the word of the Buddha'. However, Gethin

points out that the use of this formula at the beginning of a text is not necessarily an

indication that it was actually uttered by the Buddha in person, but by monks and

nuns who had been his disciples, some of them from long after his death. Therefore,

the phrase is used as a way of giving authority to the account and even if it is not

directly related to the Buddha, it is often acknowledged as an indirect affirmation of

his words. The basic teachings of the Buddha found in the Suttas include the Four

Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path. Two of the most popular scriptures contained in

the Suttas are the Dhammapada and the Jataka Tales.

As such, the Sutta Pitaka does suggest a wider audience than a monastic setting and

radiates a different kind of authority, that of the Buddha sasana (teaching or doctrine

of the Buddha). This means that it extends to all Buddhists and should be accessible

to all people. The Sutta Pitaka is widely used as a source of wisdom and guidance for

Buddhist living, and spiritual. moral and practical advice can be extracted from it.

The discourses, or dialogues, contained within the Suttas are collected together

into five sections:

1. The Digha Nikaya, which is the longest of the discourses. It contains 34 sermons

including themes such as false teachings; the ascetic lifestyle; the view that

animal sacrifice and self-mortification are bad actions; the twelve links of

causation, the Buddha's parinirvana, four types of meditation, why the Buddha

refused to talk about God; and the teaching on the duties of a householder.

2. The Majjhima Nikaya is a thematic collection of medium-length discourses.

Included here are 152 sermons with themes such as the Buddha's Awakening or enlightenment; his renunciation and spiritual quest; advice on meditation given by the Buddha to Rahula about meditation; his past life stories; the Noble Eightfold Path; and the Four Noble Truths; the characteristics of an arahat; and Pratekya Buddhas.

3. The Samyutta Nikaya, which is an anthology of 'Kindred sayings' or 2889 short discourses on subjects such as the Noble Eightfold Path and the Four Noble Truths; the twelve nidanas (links of causation); the five skandhas; the levels of jhanas and nibbana.

4. The Anguttara Nikaya contains 2308 short sayings or 'Gradual Sayings' on topics such as karma; one Buddha; meditation on loving-kindness (mettabhavana);

the five mental hindrances; and monastic duties.

5. Within the Khuddaka Nikaya you find a collection ofthe shortest texts. This is thought to have been added to the Tipitaka at a later date. It is made up of 15 ancient literary texts, including the Dhammapada and Jatakas. This literature, which is often made up of poetry, includes the Four Noble Truths; the Three Refuges; loving kindness; the famous parable of the blind men and the elephant; the account of the temptations of Mara; teachings on rebirth; and accounts ofthe past lives ofthe Buddha.

Despite not being in chronological order, the fragmented account of Siddhartha Gautama's life (Siddhattha Gotama) - often referred to as the 'historical Buddha' - is interwoven throughout the Suttas. The Buddha used examples from his earlier life, or lives, to illustrate his teachings and, therefore, a fairly full picture of his life can be built up by readers of the Sutta Pitaka. The key events in his life, his birth; the Four Sights; the Great Departure; The Awakening or Enlightenment; his First Sermon and his Death (parinirvana) are those celebrated within Buddhist festivals, pilgrimage, art and literature today. The key events of the life of the Buddha are often given a hagiographical reading.

It is evident from the Suttas that the Buddha was skilled at adapting his teachings to suit individual people. His audiences included housewives, farmers and Brahmin priests. Sarah Shaw suggests that this gives a 'wide ranging and human appeal' to the Suttas of the Digha Nikaya. Once again, this re-affirms the wider authority and appeal of the Sutta Pitaka. In a sense the Sutta Pitaka contains the earliest examples of how the Buddha used Upaya Kosalla (Pali 'skilful means'), a term often associated with Mahayana Buddhism and the Lotus Sutra (Sanskrit upaya kausalya - see later). However, it may be useful to remember that the Buddha's original reaction to his Awakening was that the Dhamma could not be easily communicated when he stated, Those dyed in lust, wrapped in darkness, will never discern this abstruse Dhamma which goes against the worldly stream, subtle, deep, and difficult to see.' It was the Hindu god Brahma who encouraged the Buddha to deliver the discourses we now have in the Suttas of the Pali Canon.

The Dhammapada, 'path of Truth', is a collection of sayings ofthe Buddha, believed to be gathered directly by his closest disciples and contained in 423 verses. This is probably the most well-known part of the Sutta Pitaka. According to Richard Gray it is thought to be a 'filtered version of the Buddha's teachings from the Pali Canon'. It does not contain the stories, parables and explanation of teachings and instructions that are typically contained within the rest of the Sutta Pitaka, and yet its teachings are n9 less profound or practical. It is easily memorised and its authority and appea I is 'filcfi'i:hat it is used extensively by Theravadins, as well as being highly regarded by Buddhists of some Mahayana schools. Moreover, many lay Buddhists would have a copy of the Dhammapada in their homes. It is used by the laity as a source of inspiration and a practical guide for living and it is chanted as a formula for protection or during times of trouble. Buddhists seek the wisdom of the Buddha as guidance when they read it. It 'elucidates the path of the Dhamma, the path to enlightenment' according to J. Fowler. Therefore, the teachings contained within the Dhammapada are ultimately aimed at the cessation of dukkha.

Dating from approximately 300 BCE to 400 CE the Jatakas consist of a collection of over 500 anecdotes and fables told by the Buddha about experiences within his previous lives. The setting for the stories is the city of Benares in India. As the protagonist, the Buddha appears as an array of colourful characters depicted in both human and animal forms. He is regarded as the greatest storyteller. When he narrates his past lives he refers to himself as the bodhisattva, or a Buddha-to-be.

He chooses the best stories to explain puzzling situations. For example, he is seen as a monkey who makes himself into a bridge in order to save his troop. The Buddha to-be is frequently seen as the hero of these, often humorous, tales. However, he is never depicted as a woman in the Jatakas that have been collected together in the Pali Canon. In the Jatakas he often performs acts of selflessness and embodies the virtues that are the focus of the tale. The last ten highly venerated Jataka tales have morality and the Ten Perfections (generosity, virtue, renunciation, wisdom, energy, patience, truthfulness, resolution, loving kindness and equanimity) at their heart.

There is an emphasis upon cultivating the Perfections in order to achieve good karma and ultimately Buddhahood. The Jatakas reinforce the Buddhist doctrine of rebirth and, perhaps show a stronger connection within the stories between one life and the next than is put forward in the notion of anatta. On the surface, the Jataka stories appear to have very little to do with Buddhist philosophy; however, fay Buddhists are particularly attracted to them and they have shaped the beliefs of Buddhists today. During festivals, such as Vesak, tales are often re-enacted. The Jatakas also remain a source of authority for sermons and religious teachings. In predominantly Buddhist countries such as Thailand, Laos, Cambodia and Burma / Myanmar a rich array of artwork is based on the Jatakas. Additionally, the Jatakas are often used as media for teaching morality to children and have been used as inspiration for many cartoons, some of which are now available on the Internet.

Key quotes

Rouse yourself, be diligent, in Dhamma faring well. Who dwells in Dhamma's happy in this birth and the next.

Dhammpada Chapter 13 Verse 167

Driven by fear, people run for security to mountains and forests, to saered spots and shrines. But none of these can be a safe refuge, because they cannot free the mind from fear.

Take refuge in the Buddha, the dharma, and the sangha, and you will grasp the Four Noble Truths: suffering, the cause of suffering, the end of suffering, and the Noble Eightfold Path that takes you beyond suffering.

That is your best refuge, your only refuge. When you reach it all sorrow falls away.

Dhammpada Chapter 14 Verse 188 – 192

Questions:

1. Where are the discourses of the Buddha to be found and what is the term for 'the word of the Buddha'?

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2. Explain how the Sutta Pitta is structures?

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3. Explain what is the importance of the Sutta Pitaka for Buddhists?

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4. What does it mean for a text to claim thus saith the blessed one?

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5. Explain What is the Dhammapada and how is the Dhammapada organised?

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6. Explain how we can know about the life of the Buddha from the Sutta Pitaka ?

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7. Explain what are the Jataka tales?

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8. Explain how the Jakata are used and what some of their main themes are?

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The relevance of the Abhidhamma for the commentarial development of Buddhism

Key Words

Causation – the act of causing something; or the relationship between cause and effect

Dhammas – the units or components from which everything is made

The Abhidhamma Pitaka contains philosophical teachings which reveal the Buddhist perspective on the world and reality. Tradition has it that the Buddha laught the Abhidhamma to his mother in a heaven realm, thus giving authority to this section ofthe Pali Canon. Divided into seven sections, it is referred to as the 'higher Dhamma' and is thought to be more appropriate for use by the more learned monks of the sangha. As such it is used less amongst the laity.

These teachings are not those of the historical Buddha and are thought to be a later addition to the Canon, probably added atthe Third Council in the 3rd century BCE. Gethin argues that the Abhidhamma simply continues 'the process of systematisation already evident in the Nikayas' of the Pali Canon and that 'commentary and interpretation had always formed part of Buddhism' (Gethin).

What sets the Abhidhamma apart from the Vinaya and the Suttas is that both of the other sections of the Tipitaka are commentaries on situations that have arisen, whereas the Abhidhamma 'is the Buddha's teaching stated in bare and general terms without reference to any particular circumstances' (Gethin).

The Abhidhamma Pitaka describes the process of samsara, thus enabling the reader to gain an insight into reality. Richard Gombrich describes the Abhidhamma as 'a scholastic elaboration of doctrine, especially as regards the analysis of mind'. It discusses issues such as dhammas or the need to avoid constructing the idea of 'self' or 'my', which are not reality; different types of causation. Paul Williams tells us that the Abhidhamma is concerned with 'unravelling the dynamic nature of things and explaining how the world nevertheless hangs together'. He suggests that the Abhidhamma provides a description of the dhammas, or building-blocks that make up the world we experience, and that these also relate to morality and the path to liberation. It could be suggested, therefore, that the deeply philosophical writings of the Abhidhamma offer the reader an insight into absolute reality.

Questions:

1. Where is the traditional explanation of the origin of the Abhidhamma?

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2. Explain what scholars like Gethin say about the origin of the Abhidhamma?

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3. Explain how Gombrich and Williams describe the structure and purpose of the Abhidhamma? ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

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4. What does Matthew Megapsara say about the Abhidhamma?

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The importance of the Pali Canon as a source of wisdom

Key Words

Sangiti – The custom of Sangiti, meaning reciting together is believed to have begun by the Buddha and continues today as Buddhists recite the Tipikitake together

the Three Lakshanas – The three marks of existence Anicca is the belief that nothing in the universe is fixed. Nothing stays the same and everything will change. Anatta is the belief that because everything in the universe changes, so too do human beings. Dukkha is the idea that people suffer.

Dhammapada – The Dhammapada, 'path of Truth', is a collection of sayings of the Buddha, believed to be gathered directly by his closest disciples and contained in 423 verses.

In the UK, the Pali Text Society was set up by T. W. Rhys Davids in1881 'to foster and promote the study of Pali texts'. The Canon was translated into the English language, making it more accessible. Academic interest in the Pali language and scriptures grew. Today translations, in a number of languages, are available for anyone to read on the Internet. It is not unusual today to see quotations from the historical Buddha (unfortunately sometimes incorrect) or from the Dhammapada on the Internet and social media sites. But this source of wisdom has not been accessible worldwide until recent times.

The Dhammapada is probably the most well·known part of the Sutta Pitaka. According to Richard Gray, it is thought to be a 'filtered version of the Buddha's teachings from the Pall Canon'. It does not contain the stories, parables and explanation of teachings and instructions that are typically contained within the rest of the Sutta Pitaka, and yet its teachings are no less profound or practical. It is easily memorised and its authority and appeal are such that it is used extensively by Theravadans, as well as being highly regarded by Buddhists of some Mahayana schools. Moreover, many lay Buddhists would have a copy of the Dhammapada in their homes. It is used by the laity as a source of inspiration and a practical guide for livmg and it IS chanted as a formula for protection or during times of trouble. Buddhists seek the wisdom of the Buddha as guidance when they read it. It 'elucidates the path of the Dhamma, the path to enlightenment' according to J Fowler. Therefore, the teachings contained within the Dhamrnapada are ultimately aimed atthe cessation of dukkha.

As Buddhist teachings become accessible, more people have engaged with its philosophy and practices. Thus, the influence of the Pali Canon as a source of wisdom to Buddhists in the UK, as well as in other countries throughout the world, has strengthened. Its practical advice for practitioners, e.g. on how to meditate and follow the dharma, remains central to Buddhists today.

The Pali Canon provides an insight into the core teachings of Buddhism, including the teachings ofthe historical Buddha on the Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path. It is a source of wisdom for Theravadins who believe it contains all the teachings needed to guide them toward achieving nibbana. The texts are memorised by Theravadin monks and recited during ceremonies and meditations. It is tradition within Theravada Buddhism to see the Pali Canon as depicting the original Buddhism. As such it is seen as the word of the Buddha and carries authority as a source of wisdom.

It is the oldest written version of the historical Buddha's teachings and as such, 'even Buddhists from the Mahayana traditions accept these Pali writings as an accurate reflection ... of what Buddha taught' (Landaw and Bodian). Nevertheless, within Theravada, some Mahayana and Vajrayana schools the Pali Canon remains a central source of authority for teachings and practices, such as the Four Noble Truths, the Noble Eightfold Path, the Three Lakshanas and advice on meditation.

The custom of Sangiti, which means reciting together, is an important tradition within Buddhism. This has been the method of transmitting the dharma of the Buddha since the sangha gathered in the First Buddhist Council. The content of these recitations is now to be found within the Pali Canon. Prof. Bhikshu Satyapala tells us that in Buddhism Sangiti 'has a distinct, deeper and wider meaning and in that sense it means the recitation of the teachings of the Buddha for their collection, compilation, classification, verification, or authentication, approval and memorisation'. The practice of Sangiti continues today. Not only is it instrumental in keeping order within the monastic community but the practice also serves to ensure the continuation of the words of the Buddha in their purest and most accurate form. Indeed, the way in which the Canon has been organised is centred around this practice as it is divided up into sections depending on how it is to be recited.

Individually, the three-fold partition of the baskets allows for differentiation in how it is used as a source of wisdom. On the whole the Vinaya Pitaka is a practical source of wisdom and advice on how to follow the Buddhist path and is specifically focused on a monastic setting and for a community of practising nuns and monks. It also helps those outside the monastic boundary, on entering, to see an environment that is conducive for seeking out nibbana. In contrast, the Sutta Pitaka is more didactic, ethical. and 'historical' or 'hagiographical' in nature in that it reveals the sasana, that is, the collective teaching of the Buddha for all Buddhists. Again, the philosophical focus of the Abhidhamma Pitaka makes it a more 'specialist' and advanced pursuit for those aiming for a deeper understanding of the Buddhist teachings.

Therefore the Pali Canon holds collective importance for the whole of Buddhism as a source of wisdom; in practice, the Pali Canon is source of wisdom that has different parts catering for the different practical and spiritual needs of its adherents.

Key Quotes

Buddhism cannot be reduced to a collection of theoretical writings nor a philosophical system of thought - although both of these form an important part of its tradition. What lies at the heart of Buddhism, according to its own understanding of the matter, is dharma. (Gethin)

Questions:

1. Explain what is the origin and importance of the Pali Text Society?

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2. Explore the importance of the dhammapada for Buddhists?

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3. Explain how the influence and reach of the Pali cannon was historical strengthened in the UK and west?

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4. Explain how Theravada Buddhist see the Pali Cannon / Tipitaka? ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

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5. What does the three-fold partition of the baskets allow for?

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The relative importance of the Pali Canon and the Buddha

Key Words

Theravadin – an adherent of Theravada Buddhism

Dana – giving

In Theravadin Buddhism today the Vinaya continues to be a major influence mainly for the and Vajrayana monastic sanghas. It informs daily life within their specific monastic communities. In other Buddhist traditions within Mahayana it is not necessarily given the same emphasis. although the monastic life is comparable in practice.

As the Vinaya is specifically for monastic living. its rules may be seen as outdated and irrelevant in today's society and so relatively unimportant for the majority of Buddhists who do not live in a monastic setting. that is. the lay community.

One widely used example of this is that it is very difficult for monks or nuns to survive today without handling money. especially in Western communities without a large Buddhist population. The alms round often does not suffice and sanghas have had to adapt in order to ensure their survival. Some Buddhist centres in the West now have to suggest a specific amount of money as in order to deliver teachings. After all the expenses of travelling teachers need to be met. One might ask how this understandable dilemma. just one example amongst many actually fits with the sangha rules written thousands of years ago? In this sense it could be argued that the importance of this aspect of the Pali Canon has diminished.

However,. the Sutta Pitaka is important. not only to the monastic sangha but also as guidance for the laity. It is believed by Theravadins to contain the words of the Buddha or the teachings of his close disciples. thus giving it a great deal of authority. As well as teaching the path to enlightenment via key Buddhist teachings such as the Four Noble Truths. it also offers advice on many practical issues. These include subjects such as relationships; marriage; employment; handling money; and activities that may lead to addiction such as gambling. There are also positive recommendations on things such as how to use time wisely rather than idly and practices such as meditation.

Nonetheless, it is usually taught by the monks and nuns rather than being accessed directly by the laity and so there could be said to be some restrictions as to its direct importance for the laity.

Despite this. it is the one part of the Tipitaka that encapsulates all of the Buddha's teachings and biographical accounts. Whilst some of the texts in the Pali are unfamiliar to many Buddhists. the Sutta Pitaka contains the most famous of all Pali texts. i.e. the Dhammapada and the Jatakas. Thus showing how well used and respected it is. The Pali Canon is a practical guide to practices such as meditation and this has enabled the preservation of Buddhism.

Another way in which the importance of the Pali Canon is limited in terms of its leadership and scholarship is the abstract and complex teaching in the Abhidhamma Pitaka. This suggests that it might only be of relevance to monks. nuns and scholars who are pursuing dhamma studies at a higher level. This might suggest, therefore, that it is of limited overall importance.

Key Quotes

None of the Buddha's early teachings is rejected by the Mahayana, although they are sometimes reinterpreted in radical ways. Keown

It is far more common to stumble upon an isolated sentence or paragraph like a carved scene on a chipped stone, that offers a brief tantalising glimpse into his world. Batchler

The Pali Canon may also seem irrelevantto Mahayana schools such as Nichiren Buddhism who see its teachings as Upaya or 'skilful means'. Their view is that these teachings have been superseded by later texts such as the Lotus Sutra. However, it could be argued that many ofthe ideas in the Abhidhamma have been developed in Mahayana texts. Additionally, the Abhidhamma Pitaka continues to engage scholarly interest as a source of wisdom amongst academics as well as more advanced members of the monastic sangha.

To support this line of argument, the Clear Vision website reminds us that in-depth study of the scriptures is not essential for Buddhist practice and that many Buddhists in the world are not able to read. Indeed, the website points out that it is meditation and ethical practice that are central to self-translation.

Stephen Batchelor suggests that when reading the Pali Canon you don't often find long sections containing the biography of the historical Buddha. Batchelor argues that it is like finding a needle in a haystack when you come across any detail about his life. Despite modern research into oral traditions, Batchelor argues that when these details were handed down by the monks through the oral tradition 'no doubt, certain details were forgotten, omitted or muddled up, and doctrinal passages were elaborated and refined'. However, Batchelor goes on to say that as 'each chipped and weathered stone finds its place ... the sublime tragedy of Siddhartha Gotama's life begins to unfold before one's startled eyes'. Therefore even with all this in mind, over 2500 years after the life of the historical Buddha, the content of the Pali Canon remains a significant source of authority, information, inspiration and wisdom to Buddhists.

Some would argue, like Batchelor, that it is unlikely that the historical Buddha would ever have spoken the language of Pali and the words contained there are unlikely to be the actual words of the Buddha. Additionally, this is only a selection of the Buddha's teaching, as it would have been impossible to record everything he said over his 45-year teaching career. So it gives a piecemeal account of his life and work. Nonetheless, just because we have an 'edited' version does not necessarily diminish its status as a significant source of authority, information, inspiration and wisdom to Buddhists.

In conclusion, the Pali Canon is a vast collection of literature, and few Buddhists would sit and read it entirely. The monastic sangha are the guardians of the dharma. They interpret the scriptures and pass it on to the laity. Of course, the rules of the Vinaya and Abhidhamma Pitakas are meant for use by the monastic sangha only. The Suttas hold more relevance to Buddhists within the lay sangha, some being more often known and used than others. Some of the stories, parables, and teachings of the Buddha are very familiar, e.g. those such as the Jatakas, that are used to teach children and the refuges used to show commitment in daily practice. Sometimes parts of the Canon are recited for protection and others used to retlect on the blessings of life, e.g. the Metta Sutta on universal love. Monks learn some parts of the Canon by heart. Some parts of the Canon are chanted daily. What is evident is that the basic teachings and biographical narratives of the historical Buddha that are so familiar to Buddhists today that are sourced from the Pali Canon. The Canon is treated with the same great respect as relics of the Buddha.

Key Quotes

With the arrival of Buddhism in the West ... the divide between monastic and lay practice is becoming less distinct, with many very committed and educated lay people studying scriptures in translation. (Clear Vision Website)

The Pali Canon is a complex tapestry of linguistic and rhetorical styles, shot through with conflicting ideas, doctrines and images, all assembled and elaborated over about four centuries. The cannon does not speak with a single voice. (Batchelor)

Questions:

1. Pick out the different lines of argument that are presented in the text and identity any evidence given in support.

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2. For each line of argument try to evaluate whether or not you think this is strong (convincing) or weak (unconvincing).

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3. Think of any questions you may wish to raise in response to the arguments.?

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The significance of the Vinaya for the sangha and Sexism

Key Words

Arhatship – becoming an arahant (arhat (Skt)), 'noble or orthy one' who has achieved enlightenment

Prajna – wisdom

There can be no doubt that the rules contained in the Vinaya Pitaka have great significance for the monastic sangha and indeed many uses. The main aims for those a monastic setting are to get rid of material attachments; prevent attachment to the three poisons; remove the ego and dukkha; and to focus on the path of arahatship leading to the ultimate goal of nibbana. This is arguably the most significant aspect for all Buddhists eventually, although not necessarily in this present life. So although it has a specialised focus, the Vinaya may not be 'significant' for all Buddhists here and now. The real issue here is whether or not this necessarily means that on the whole this reduces its significance in Buddhism generally?

Some could argue that it does. The Vinaya contains rules that are set in place to foster good relationships and maintain order within a monastic community setting. It is therefore not really for lay Buddhists. Although lay Buddhists may access the monastic sangha for retreats, once lay Buddhists are outside the boundary, the Vinaya rules are lapsed.

However, it could be recognised that monastics who observe the Patimokka rules become good role models for the lay community. The rules instill values indirectly into the wider Buddhist community by serving to guide the laity, remove temptation and prevent distraction. By observing the rules, monks and nuns are able to live a simple life and focus upon the Dharma, developing and showing commitment and dedication to the Middle Way. Their influence of the wider Buddhist community is very significant in this way.

Key Quote

As a Buddhist practitioner, I look to the Buddha's discourses not just for scholarly knowledge, but in order to help me come to terms with what the Chinese call the 'great matter of birth and death'. It is in this sense that my secular Buddhism still has a religious quality to it, because it is the conscious expression of my 'ultimate concern' - as the theologian Paul Tillich once defined 'faith'. (Batcheler)

Despite this, some could argue that the rules of the Vinaya Pitaka are inherently patriarchal and therefore irrelevant and outdated within modern Buddhism. For example, in terms of the role of women in the sangha, we can see from the Vinaya that during the lifetime of the Buddha, nuns as well as monks were fully ordained. This included the Buddha's own stepmother, Mahaprajapati. However, the rules required a quorum of ordained members of the sangha to be present in order for an ordination to take place. At one point in the history of Buddhism, this quorum was not achieved and there was an insufficient number of nuns present. Thus, the lineage of nuns in the Theravada tradition was broken. It has been a long road to re-establishing the order of Buddhist nuns and still today there are stigmas attached to nuns due to certain traditional prejudices. However, some would argue that such prejudices do not in any way reflect Buddhist teaching but simply the inadequacies of some social settings and the inability of them to be truly free from the fetters of world attachments that prejudiced views bring. However, this does not explain how there is still inequality of position for women in the Theravadin sangha in terms that it is dominated by a patriarchal hierarchy and structure.

Another line of thinking would be to suggest that the perceived inequality is an outcome of the practical application of the rules of the Vinaya, rather than a reflection of the status of women within the sangha. For example, Rita Gross looks at the Pali Canon from a feminist perspective and suggests that 'the texts are ... ambiguous and contradictory regarding women than those from any other period' but that to suggest that they are misogynistic is a misinterpretation. She argues that it would be hard to argue that misogyny existed in early Buddhism and that there were cultural stereotypes about women at the time.

Therefore, the Vinaya rules are significant within Buddhism but it has been their misapplication and misinterpretation that may have caused the rise of this inequality. For example, the voices of women are lacking in the texts as they are recorded by men. Additionally, some of the misogyny within the Pali Canon might be the 'outburst of an

individual frustrated monk', according to Gross. In this sense, it could be argument that it is even more significant today because it is required for all to achieve enlightenment, both male and female and equally important to iron out any misapplications.

Evidently, one of the reasons Buddhism has survived into the 21st century is due to the unbroken lineage of the ordained monastic sangha. The monastic sangha, in observing the Patimokka rules, has protected the dharma since the time of the historical Buddha. It is surely not an overestimation to suggest that Theravada Buddhism might not be such a thriving, living way of dharma practice today if it were not for the application ofthe Vinaya rules.

Another criticism made of the Vinaya within contemporary society often concerns the additional rules bhikkhunis are required to follow, which are mostly aimed at avoidance of sexual tension within the sangha. There has been some debate as to whether this is evidence of inequality within the sangha. However, given the position of women at the time of the historical Buddha, it was very radical for him to have allowed women to be ordained at all. It is often argued that the rules were originally put in place to protect nuns within the sangha rather than to oppress them. Nevertheless, in today's society it is argued that it is reasonable to expect gender equality and within the Theravadin monastic community there are moves to address this. For instance, within the Burmese sangha, monks now undertake to observe all 311 rules.

Denise Cush suggests that often the rules contained within the Vinaya Pitaka 'are genuinely concerned with promoting the reduction of craving and the path to nirvana' but that some are just practical and 'others seem to uphold the good image of the sangha in the eyes of the public'.

Whatever the case, in conclusion it could perhaps be argued that, as a place of refuge from suffering, the sangha needs to be disciplined in order to be conducive to the cessation of dukkha and that the collected wisdom that the Vinaya brings is a practical way of achieving this and will always be significant.

Key Quote

As a Buddhist practitioner, I look to the Buddha's discourses not just for scholarly knowledge, but in order to help me come to terms with what the Chinese call the 'great matter of birth and death'. It is in this sense that my secular Buddhism still has a religious quality to it, because it is the conscious expression of my 'ultimate concern' - as the theologian Paul Tillich once defined 'faith'. (Batchler

Key quote

Were it not for the Vinaya and for those who continue to keep it alive to

this day there would be no Buddhism. (access to insight website)

Questions:

1. List some conclusions that could be drawn from the A02 reasoning from the above text; try to aim for at least three different possible conclusions. Consider each of the conclusions and collect brief evidence to support each conclusion from the A01 and A02 material for this topic. Select the conclusion that you think is most convincing and explain why it is so. Try to contrast this with the weakest

conclusion in the list, justifying your argument with clear reasoning and evidence

2. Is the Abhidhamma is useful or not? Below is a summary of two different points of view concerning whether the Abhidhamma is useful or not. It is 150 words long. You want to use these two views and lines of argument for an evaluation; however, to just list them is not really evaluating them. Present these two views in a more evaluative style by firstly condensing each argument and then, secondly, commenting on how effective each one is (weak or strong are good terms to start with). Allow about 200 words in total.

YES - The Abhidhamma IS very useful; it is for those who want to understand the

Dhamma in greater depth and detail. It aids the development of insight into

the three characteristics of existence: impermanence, unsatisfactoriness and

non-self. It is useful not only for the periods devoted to formal meditation, but

also during the rest of the day when Buddhists are engaged in various mundane

chores. Monastics derive great benefit from the study of the Abhidhamma to help

experience absolute realIty.

NO- The Abhidhamma would be of no real use to a novice monk or a lay person as it is far too advanced and complex. In this sense, within the whole scope of Buddhism, the Abhidhamma is in fact pretty useless and very rarely accessed or referred to. It is also of no real practical use for anyone other than those who are far advanced along the Buddhist path such as monks and nuns.

Assessment Questions (Choose one):

2 Assess the view the Tippikitaka (Pali Cannon) is of no use to Buddhists today (12)