Dukkha – Suffering
Samudaya – the arising of dukkha
Nirodha – the cessation of dukkha
Magga – the way, also the eightfold path
The Three Poisons– the hindrances to the goal- greed Hatred and ignorance
The Three fold way – a shortened summary of the eightfold path
Tanha – Desire or craving
Nirvana / Nibanna – the goal of becoming one with the universe
Theravada – the Buddhist tradition focused on the ‘way of the elders’, using the Arahat Path and gaining enlightenment thus Nibanna.
Mahayana – the Buddhist tradition focused on the path of the Bodhisttva to become a compassionate being
Damien Keown (c 1951-Present CE)
Bikkhu Bodhi. . (c1944-present)
"Buddhism: A Very Short Introduction" and the OUP "Dictionary of Buddhism " By Damien Keown
"Noble Truths, Noble Path (TOB): The Heart Essence of the Buddha's Original Teachings (2023)" -By Bikkhu Bodhi.
The Four Noble Truths were the first teachings delivered by the Buddha and are a method of applying the teachings in a practical way. They are seen as a golden standard for Buddhists and are the central focus for most Buddhists even today. There are so many other teachings from the Buddha that the Four Noble Truths are just one more example.
Mahayana Buddhism claims to be the ‘greater vehicle’ and they focus on other aspects of Buddha’s teaching. Tibetan Buddhism instead focuses on how to achieve liberation through methods such as meditation and devotion. The priority for lay Buddhists may not be to go over and remember the Four Noble Truths but could be instead to live their best life and earn fruitful karma. In the grand scheme of things, the Four Noble Truths are only really a teaching device to establish the truth and if they are iconised then they become something they were not intended to be.
The "three poisons" are fundamental concepts in Buddhist teachings, representing the primary causes of suffering and the perpetuation of the cycle of samsara. They are greed (lobha), hatred (dosa), and delusion (moha). For Buddhists Tanha (Cravinf/desire) is the cause of sufferingwhat drives this craving are the defilements of the mind. In the Pali Canon the Buddha describes the 3 poisons of greed, hatred and ignorance as the most common driving forces behind tanha. These negative traits and fundamental evils are called the Three Poisons, because they are dangerous toxins in our lives. Not only are they the source of our unquenchable thirst for possessions, and the root cause of all of our harmful illusions, but they are painful pollutants, which bring sickness, both physical and mental.
In the Tibetan Wheel of Life there are usually three animals that represent the three causes of suffering:
Pig – Ignorance or delusion
Cockerel – Greed and Desire
Snake – Anger and Hatred
Greed (Lobha):
"Greed is a powerful force, particularly in the materialistic world we live in today. It drives endless desire and attachment, leading to dissatisfaction and suffering. Recognizing and overcoming greed is essential for cultivating contentment and inner peace." — Bhikkhu Bodhi
Hatred (Dosa):
"Hatred arises from aversion and hostility towards oneself and others. It clouds the mind with negativity and perpetuates conflict and suffering. Cultivating loving-kindness and compassion is crucial for overcoming hatred and fostering harmony and well-being." — Sharon Salzberg
Delusion (Moha):
"Delusion is the root cause of ignorance and misunderstanding about the true nature of reality. It leads to the mistaken belief in a permanent, independent self and fuels attachment and clinging. Developing wisdom and insight is the antidote to delusion, leading to liberation from suffering." — Joseph Goldstein
What is the link between the 3 poisons and dukkha (4NT)?
Hatred (Anger)
Hatred and anger are negative emotions that affect us just as much as the person we direct them to
Not only will hatred get us bad karma but it links to ignorance as we are ignorant of how we are harming ourselves and others
Meditations to calm the mind and focus on positive qualities such as metta, karuna, and khanti (see later slides)
Greed (Desire)
As humans we have a tendency to crave more. When we can’t have these things we can become dissatisfied and depressed
Searching for external happiness can only take us so far. We have to learn to be happy with what we have.
Focusing on acceptance and also the idea of anicca (impermanence) – most cravings are temporary and will not bring lasting happiness
Ignorance (Delusion)
Most of us are ignorant to the true causes of suffering and believe that we can find happiness from external pleasures
Until we learn that happiness is internal rather than external we will not be able to reach enlightenment
Focusing on the Buddha’s teachings and learning to understand the true causes of suffering (and therefore happiness)
How do Theravada and differ on the Mahayana and the three poisons
In Theravada, the concept of the Three Poisons—greed (raga), hatred (dvesha), and delusion (moha)—is fundamental to understanding the causes of suffering and the path to liberation.
Mahayana teachings often expand upon and deepen the understanding of the Three Poisons in several ways:
Transformation into Wisdom: Mahayana teachings emphasize the potential for transforming the Three Poisons into their corresponding antidotes, known as the Three Pure Precepts or Three Trainings. Greed can be transformed into generosity (dana), hatred into loving-kindness (maitri), and delusion into wisdom (prajna). This transformation involves cultivating positive qualities that counteract the harmful effects of the Three Poisons and lead to spiritual awakening.
Bodhisattva Path: In Mahayana Buddhism, practitioners aspire to the bodhisattva ideal, dedicating themselves to the welfare and liberation of all sentient beings. The cultivation of compassion (karuna) and altruistic intention (bodhichitta) is central to the bodhisattva path, providing a powerful antidote to the Three Poisons. Bodhisattvas work tirelessly to alleviate the suffering caused by greed, hatred, and delusion, embodying the transformative potential of Mahayana practice.
Interdependence and Emptiness: Mahayana philosophy emphasizes the interconnectedness of all phenomena and the emptiness (shunyata) of inherent existence. The Three Poisons are seen as arising from a fundamental misunderstanding of reality, rooted in the belief in a fixed and independent self. By realizing the emptiness of self and phenomena, practitioners can uproot the causes of the Three Poisons and attain liberation.
Skillful Means (Upaya): Mahayana teachings emphasize the use of skillful means (upaya) to address the diverse forms of suffering and the varying capacities of sentient beings. Different practices and teachings are employed to counteract the specific manifestations of the Three Poisons, guiding practitioners towards liberation in accordance with their individual needs and circumstances.
"All this which has form is empty.
Conceiving emptiness, there is no form.
There is no feeling, discrimination, or consciousness.
No eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, or mind.
There is no form, sound, smell, taste, touch, or mental object.
There is no realm of the eye up to no realm of mind.
There is no ignorance or ending of ignorance, up to no old age and death or ending of old age and death.
There is no suffering, origination, cessation, or path.
There is no wisdom and no attainment." (Nagarjuna, Mulamadhyamakakarika, Chapter 24, Verse 19)
“Now this (monks) is the noble truth of the origin of suffering: it is this craving which leads to the renewed existence, accompanied by delight and lust, seeking delight here and there; that is craving for sensual pleasures, craving for existence, craving for extermination.”
The Buddha in the Samyutta Nikaya, vol. 5 p.421
The Doctor Analogy
Developed by Buddhagosha in 5th century
1.The diagnosis of the problem that there is suffering (dukkha)
2.An investigation into the cause (samudaya) of suffering concludes that its craving (tanha) which is to blame
3.Establishing the best way to eliminate/cease (nirodha) the cause of suffering
4.The application of a course of treatment in order to activate nirodha. This means to follow magga (the 8-Fold Path). This attacks the root of the craving which treats the cause of the suffering and prevents further suffering.
Bhikkhu Bodhi: "The Four Noble Truths are not simply pronouncements; they are invitations to embark on a journey of discovery."
‘But if any one goes to the Buddha, the Doctrine and the order as a refuge, he perceives with proper knowledge the four noble truths: Suffering, the arising of suffering and the overcoming of suffering, and the noble eightfold path leading to the cessation of suffering.’
The Buddha in the Dhammapada, verses 190-191
The truth of suffering
All life is suffering. Life doesn’t live up to our expectations. Human beings are subject to desires and cravings, but even when we are able to satisfy these desires, the satisfaction is only temporary The Buddha taught that suffering is an unavoidable part of human life and that because we are trapped in the cycle of samsara we will suffer continually until we are able to break free and achieve enlightenment. Even though the Buddha taught that it is important to recognise that suffering is an unavoidable part of life, he did not deny that happiness exists. However, he taught that even though happiness is real, it is impermanent, which in itself will eventually cause more suffering when the things that cause our happiness change/come to an end.
Keown: "Cornerstone of Buddhist teaching"
3 parts:
Ordinary: physical pain.
Dukkha-Dukkha: Suffering as Pain experience
This is the actual experience of bodily pain such as illness, injury, and general discomfort. It covers anything that is negative in our sense experience. This also extends to mental anguish over things or people that we are attached to such as our valuable and sentimental possessions or our loved ones.
Impermanence: e.g. divorce.
Viparinama-Dukkha: Suffering experienced through change
This all about suffering due to change, in other words the fact that things are persistently unstable and we experience the ‘ups’ and ‘downs’ of life. A person does not worry so much when pain changes into relief, but the change that ends pleasure, happiness, and peacefulness, such as going back to work after a holiday, is frustrating.
Conditioned state: butterfly effect.
Sankhara-Dukkha: Suffering inherent in the contingent nature of existence
This is a more subtle dissatisfaction with life itself rather than with any specific problem. We are frustrated because things are constantly changing, arising and passing away but we have no control of this.
Dukkha Links with Three Marks of existence e.g. Anatta/no-self. + Anicca = impermanence.
Bodhi: "The inherent unsatisfactoriness of existence"
"The Buddha's teaching on suffering does not involve pessimism, a bleak vision of the human condition, or a pessimistic world- view. Instead, it offers a perspective that is clear-eyed, realistic, and ultimately liberating."
"The Buddha's teachings on suffering reveal its deeper dimensions and offer profound insights into its origins, nature, cessation, and the path leading to its end."
"Dukkha, or suffering, is the starting point and foundation of the Buddha's teaching. It is the recognition of suffering that prompts spiritual seekers to embark on the path of liberation."
Dhammapada: "The ending of craving ends all suffering"
Mahayana view = Heart Sutra: "There is no suffering".
ISSUES / DISCUSSION
Is Buddhism a pessimistic religion? Some people thing that the Buddha’s teachings about suffering are pessimistic, whereas others think that they are simply realistic.
Arguments in favour:
The argument that ‘all life is suffering’ seems a very negative way to view the world
Buddhism teaches that everything can be a cause of suffering even things that bring us joy because of the suffering that will be caused when those things are taken away.
Arguments against:
Most Buddhists would argue that this isn’t a pessimistic way of looking at life but a realistic view of the world. Ignoring the unhappiness in the world doesn’t make it go away!
Buddhism teaches that there is an end to suffering – Nirvana
The 4 Noble Truths is a practical method to reduce suffering and live a happier life
Buddhist views sit well with modern psychology about suffering being an internal rather than an external problem
Is ‘suffering’ is an inadequate translation of the word dukkha- Rahula thinks so.
Arguments in favour:
"It is true that the Pali word dukkha (or Sanskrit duhkha) in ordinary usage means ’suffering’, ’pain’, ’sorrow’ or ’misery’, as opposed to the word sukha meaning ’happiness’, ’comfort’ or ’ease’. But the term dukkha as the first Noble Truth, which represents the Buddha’s view of life and the world, has a deeper philosophical meaning and connotes enormously wider senses. It is admitted that the term dukkha in the first Noble Truth contains, quite obviously, the ordinary meaning of ’suffering’, but in addition it also includes deeper ideas such as ’imperfection’, ’impermanence’, ’emptiness’, ’insubstantia/ity’. It is difficult therefore to find one word to embrace the whole conception of the term and so it is better to leave it untranslated." (Walpola Rahula, What the Buddha Taught) Rahula
Arguments against:
Most Buddhists use suffering to mean 'old age sickness and death in everyday life.
Rahula says "It is true that the Pali word dukkha (or Sanskrit duhkha) in ordinary usage means ’suffering’, ’pain’, ’sorrow’ or ’misery’, as opposed to the word sukha meaning ’happiness’, ’comfort’ or ’ease’. "
All suffering is caused by craving?
Arguments in favour:
Teachings of the Buddha: The Buddha himself emphasized the role of craving as the root cause of suffering in his teachings on the Four Noble Truths.
Root of Attachment: Craving (tanha) is identified in Buddhist teachings as the root cause of suffering (dukkha). It encompasses not only desire for sensory pleasures but also craving for existence (bhava tanha) and craving for non-existence (vibhava tanha), which underlie various forms of suffering.
Psychological Insight: Craving is deeply ingrained in human psychology and can manifest as attachment, clinging, and dissatisfaction.
Arguments against:
Complexity of Suffering: While craving is identified as a primary cause of suffering in Buddhist teachings, it may not fully account for the complexity and diversity of human suffering. Natural or Non-moral Suffering contribute to suffering, independent of craving.
Positive Aspects of Desire: While craving is often associated with negative consequences, not all desires lead to suffering. Some desires, such as the aspiration for spiritual growth, the pursuit of knowledge, or the expression of creativity, can lead to positive outcomes
The truth of the cause of suffering
The Buddha taught that the root of all suffering is tanhā which means desire, thirst, or craving.This simply refers to wanting things. This comes in three forms, which he described as the Three Poisons. Buddha taught bhikkus about tanha during the Fire Sermon. The Buddha said that there were 3 main types of tanha:
1.Craving things that please the senses – e.g. material possessions or physical pleasures
2.Craving to become something that you are not – e.g. wanting to be rich or powerful or beautiful
3.Craving not to be – e.g. wanting to get rid of things that are causing us physical or mental pain
Arising of suffering from 'Tanha'/craving.
Keown: "Craving or excessive or inappropriate desire"
Keown: "Having positive goals for oneself and others... are all examples of positive and wholesome desires."
Can be craving for sensual things but also for no existence etc...
Akusla actions lead to Tanha.
Bodhi: "The Buddha dismisses [Hindu Karma and deism] as fanciful products of belief and imagination."
Bodhi on second Noble Truth = ‘trace the problem to its cause, its root’
ISSUES / DISCUSSION
The word tanha can also be translated as attachment. Does this make it easier to understand the 2nd Noble Truth?
Arguments in favour:
BUDDHA TAUGHT WE SHOULD AVOID SPECULATIONS Attachment to particular beliefs is also a Dukkha- causing form of tanh a. The Buddhist understanding of the Middle Way is not only about avoiding extremes of luxury and asceticism; it is also about avoiding extreme views about the nature of existence, such as nihilism or eternal ism, or whether there is a creator; or whether there is life after death. It seems that the Buddha classed these views as metaphysical speculation.
Clarity of Concept: "Attachment" is a more relatable term in modern language than "craving."
Practical Application: Understanding tanha as attachment highlights the practical implications of the Second Noble Truth.
Arguments against:
Limitation of Scope: While "attachment" captures one aspect of tanha, it may not fully convey its depth and complexity.
Cultural Context: The term "tanha" originates from the Pali language and has specific cultural and religious connotations within the Buddhist tradition.
The truth of the cessation of suffering
The Buddha taught that the only way to stop suffering is to let go of the cravings that cause us to feel dissatisfied with life. In fact the Buddha does not say that people should stop wanting things or avoid the things they crave. Instead people should learn to appreciate what they have and take pleasure in them but recognise that they cannot last forever. Stopping craving means that peace and calm will follow, known as nirvana. Nirodha is the eradication of negatives, not an accumulation of positives. Nirodha is the stage at which the wheel of life ceases to turn and precedes nirvana.
Nirvana.
Cessation of suffering.
Fire Sermon: "The holy life has been accomplished."
Theravada:
Arhat has achieved this, but in many lives.
Achieved insight into 4NT.
Bodhi: "When all craving has been extirpated, one attains Nibbāna."
Nagasena to King Milanda says enlightenment is like the wind.
You can't see it but it is there.
Turtle and the fish.
4 stages:
o Sotapanna: Right understanding.
o Sakadagami: Once returner.
o Anagami: No-returner.
o Arhat: Enlightened.
ISSUES / DISCUSSION
What is the link between nirodha and nirvana? What has been extinguished? Why is nirvana so hard to describe? Why can’t nirvana be described in either positive or negative language? What are the two types of nirvana? Is it realistic?
Nirvana (S) Nibbana (P) means awakening or enlightenment but translates literally as ‘to extinguish’.
For a Buddhist, nirvana is when the flames of desire (tanha) have been extinguished. Therefore nirodha (the cessation of tanha) is the key to nirvana. Nirvana (s) nibbana (p) literally means ‘to extinguish’ or ‘snuff out’ a flame. The flame in this case is the flame of the 3 poisons of greed, hatred and delusion. Nirvana is not a physical place like heaven is for Christians, but it is instead a state.
It is extremely difficult to define nirvana since language is created for use within the conditioned world. Since nirvana is unconditioned it cannot be described using words. It would be like trying to describe the taste of chocolate to someone who has never tasted it.
Clearly it is necessary to use words when describing nirvana but the dilemma remains:
If we talk about nirvana in positive terms then people will become attached to it (attachment is one of the 3 poisons which will prevent you reaching nirvana)
If we talk about nirvana in negative terms then people might fear it as they assume it is a state of nothingness.
There are two types of nirvana:
Nirvana in this life – Someone who has reached enlightenment is known as an arhat. They understand the true nature of reality and will not be reborn into the cycle of samsara after they die (unless they choose to become a bodhisattva)
Nirvana beyond this life – This is known as parinirvana (S) or Parinibbana (P) which is the complete extinction of ones karmic energy so that one is not reborn into the cycle of samsara.
Harvey who describes nirvana during life as “a transcendent, timeless experience which totally destroys attachment, hatred and delusion…a state in which all the personality factors and causal links stop’.
The arhat remains within the cycle of samsara for a short period and hence is still subject to dukkha, but he is not affected by suffering in the same way as a non arhat. Pain can be felt in physical terms, but the mind remains unaffected and so therefore suffering is not caused.
This may seem unrealistic, but scientific studies have shown that meditation and mindfulness can be used to overcome physical pain. A famous example is that of Buddhist monk Thích Quảng Đức, who set himself on fire in public in protest over the Vietnam war. The monk remained in silent meditation as he burned to death, which many Buddhists have attributed to his having obtained nirvana, and therefore not being affected by physical pain in the same way that other humans are.
The truth of the path leading to the end of suffering.
The Four Noble Truths are essentially a medicinal course and remedy for life. The Buddha taught that the way to end suffering was to follow the Eight-fold path. This can be split into three aspects which are sometimes known as the three-fold way. The Eightfold Path is also called the Middle Way: it avoids both indulgence and severe asceticism, neither of which the Buddha had found helpful in his search for enlightenment.
“The four true realities taught by the Buddha are not as such things to ‘believe’ but to be open to, see and contemplate, and respond to appropriately” Peter Harvey
“This is the real, this is the excellent, namely the calm of all the impulses, the casting out of all ‘basis’, the extinction of craving, dispassion, stopping, nirvana” Anguttara-Nikaya
In Theravada Buddhism, the Four Noble Truths are often seen as the core teachings of the Buddha and are interpreted in a straightforward manner.
Dukkha (suffering) is understood as the inherent unsatisfactoriness of conditioned existence, encompassing physical and mental suffering.
The cause of suffering (Samudaya) is identified primarily as craving (tanha) and ignorance (avijja).
Nirodha, the cessation of suffering, is seen as the ultimate goal of liberation, achievable through the cessation of craving and the attainment of Nirvana.
The Noble Eightfold Path is considered the means to attain the cessation of suffering, emphasizing practices such as ethical conduct, meditation, and wisdom.
Mahayana Buddhism expands upon the Theravada understanding of the Four Noble Truths and incorporates additional teachings and perspectives.
Dukkha is often interpreted more broadly in Mahayana Buddhism to include not only personal suffering but also the suffering of all beings (the concept of "universal suffering").
The causes of suffering are seen as not only individual craving and ignorance but also the fundamental misunderstanding of the nature of reality (prajnaparamita), and the concept of emptiness (sunyata) becomes central to understanding the nature of existence.
Nirodha may be interpreted differently, with some Mahayana schools emphasizing the realization of the emptiness of self and phenomena as the cessation of suffering.
The path to liberation may include additional practices beyond the Noble Eightfold Path, such as the cultivation of compassion (karuna) and the aspiration to attain Buddhahood for the benefit of all sentient beings (bodhicitta).
Nibanna Pali (Nirvana Sanskrit) means extinguishing. Attaining Nibanna - reaching enlightenment - means extinguishing the three fires of greed, delusion and hatred.
Someone who reaches Nibanna does not immediately disappear to a heavenly realm. Nibanna is better understood as a state of mind that humans can reach. It is a state of profound spiritual joy, without negative emotions and fears.
Someone who has attained enlightenment is filled with compassion for all living things.
Nirvana is the state that one reaches when they attain Bodhi and become enlightened. It is possible for one to enter nirvana whilst they are alive and live a completely “other” existence on earth, where they are truly aware of the true nature of things. It may be more accurate to view “nirvana” as a verb, as one becomes “nirvanaed” rather than nirvana being a specific place that one goes to. The most accurate definition of nirvana is ‘total understanding of the true nature of things.’
Nirvana during life is impossible to describe, but in this state one cannot create more bad karma as at death they will leave Samsara. Whilst one may still experience physical suffering such as an illness, having total awareness of the true nature of things brings people into the awareness that this suffering will pass.
“This is the real, this is the excellent, namely the calm of all the impulses, the casting out of all ‘basis’ the extinction of craving, dispassion, stopping, nirvana (nibbana)” Anguttara-Nikaya
After death an enlightened person is liberated from the cycle of rebirth, but Buddhism gives no definite answers as to what happens next.
After death, one enters pari-nirvana, there are different interpretations of Nirvana after death – Theravada Buddhists believe that one leaves samsara, becoming inaccessible to the beings that are within the wheel, and that this state is impossible for humans to know about or truly understand. Mahayana Buddhists view pari-nirvana as a splendid heavenly paradise which lasts forever as it is outside of Samsara, but those who enter it are still accessible to beings in Samsara.
The Buddha discouraged his followers from asking too many questions about nirvana. He wanted them to concentrate on the task at hand, which was freeing themselves from the cycle of suffering. Asking questions is like quibbling with the doctor who is trying to save your life.
The Buddha’s nirvana experience is often linked to the teaching of nirodha because nirvana is the outcome of the application of nirodha (a direct action taken to bring suffering to an end and thus bring peace and calm). As demonstrated by Nagasena in King Milinda, nirodha and nirvana aren’t the same. The experience of Nirvana cannot be defined as it lies beyond the world of conditioned phenomena – it cannot be unconditioned or uncaused.
“Nirvana constitutes the highest and ultimate goal of all Buddhist aspirations, i.e. absolute extinction of that life-affirming will, manifested as Greed, Hatred and Delusion…the ultimate and absolute deliverance from all future rebirth, old age, disease and death, from all suffering and misery” Nyanatiloka
“One of the insights of the Enlightenment was that the Buddha could see in detail exactly how craving and karma lead to constant rebirth” Denise Cush
D.T. Suzuki: "Nirvana is not the mere negation of life, but the affirmation of it in its highest sense."
The Buddha discouraged any kind of questioning of nirvana or trying to work out what nirvana is. He compared those who ask speculative questions about nirvana with the man in the parable of the poisoned arrow.
There is lots of negative language surrounding the concept of nirvana such as ‘blowing out’, ‘cessation’, ‘the absence of desire’.
Certain passages suggest that nirvana is a transcendent reality which is unborn, unoriginated, uncreated and unformed.
Nirvana is a state that is difficult to describe, even the Buddha struggled to describe it to his followers, and this struggle was later documented in the Questions of King Milinda in the 80th Dilemma of the Pali Canon (the Milindapanda). The monk Nagasena tells King Minlinda that it is impossible to describe nirvana through an analogy, as nothing is like nirvana. However, he is able to provide analogies for some of the effects of nirvana, for example it is said to be like a cooling drink of water that assuages one’s thirst. There are strengths in this approach as it presents a realistic picture of a difficult religious concept, but it is also problematic as followers are left unable to truly understand nirvana and this may prevent them from progressing on the path to enlightenment.
Strengths of Milindapanda’s description of Nirvana (80th Dilemma of the Pali Canon
It reflects the truth of dharma: the Buddha would not teach something that is wrong to his followers so it is better to not explain it.
This can be accompanied by biographical information about the Buddha’s demeanour after he gained enlightenment to help people understand Nirvana further.
The example of the ocean helps to highlight how complex nirvana really is – this shows that whilst it is ineffable, there is a way humans can compare their knowledge of the world to nirvana to understand its nature to a certain extrent.
Weaknesses of Milindapanda’s description of Nirvana (80th Dilemma of the Pali Canon)
It is unclear what nirvana is actually like from the text – how can this help Buddhists to gain wisdom?
The questions raised by the 80th dilemma are not answered anywhere in the dharma – how can Buddhists aim for something that is never explained?
Buddhists are aiming for something that they can never truly understand.
Not even the Buddha himself could adequately describe what nirvana is like, and he has supernatural powers.
In Theravada Buddhism, enlightenment is often understood as the realization of Nibbana, which is the cessation of suffering and the ultimate goal of liberation from the cycle of birth and death (samsara).
Scholars like Bhikkhu Bodhi (2000) emphasize the Theravada view of Nibbana as the unconditioned state beyond suffering and impermanence. Bodhi states, "Nibbana is the ultimate goal of the teaching, the state of perfect peace, purity, and freedom from suffering."
Nibbana is seen as attainable by individual practitioners through the cultivation of wisdom, ethical conduct, and meditation, ultimately leading to the eradication of defilements and the cessation of craving.
Mahayana Buddhism often expands the understanding of enlightenment to include the aspiration to become a Buddha for the benefit of all sentient beings.
Scholars like Thich Nhat Hanh emphasize the Mahayana perspective of enlightenment as the realization of interconnectedness and the cultivation of compassion. Thich Nhat Hanh (2010) states, "Enlightenment is not an escape from suffering but a realization of non-duality, which allows us to embrace suffering with compassion and understanding."
Nibbana may be understood in Mahayana Buddhism not only as the cessation of suffering but also as the realization of the true nature of reality, characterized by emptiness (sunyata) and dependent origination (pratityasamutpada).
Wisdom in Buddhism refers to the understanding of the true nature of reality, particularly the Three Characteristics of Existence: impermanence (anicca), unsatisfactoriness (dukkha), and non-self (anatta).
Panna encompasses both intellectual understanding and direct insight into the nature of existence. It arises through deep contemplation, introspection, and meditative insight.
The cultivation of wisdom leads to the realization of the Four Noble Truths, the understanding of dependent origination (paticcasamuppada), and the realization of Nibbana (Nirvana).
Wisdom enables practitioners to transcend ignorance, delusion, and attachment, leading to liberation from suffering and the cycle of birth and death.
In Theravada Buddhism, wisdom (panna) is understood as the culmination of the path, representing the direct realization of the Four Noble Truths and the Three Characteristics of Existence (impermanence, unsatisfactoriness, non-self), as the nature of reality. The cultivation of wisdom involves deep insight into the impermanent, unsatisfactory, and selfless nature of phenomena, leading to the eradication It arises from direct insight into the true nature of existence and the cessation of ignorance and delusion. Wisdom liberates individuals from the cycle of suffering and rebirth by uprooting the root causes of attachment, craving, and ignorance. It enables practitioners to see through the illusions of the ego and perceive the interconnectedness of all phenomena. Through wisdom, individuals realize the ultimate goal of enlightenment and abide in the state of Nibbana, free from suffering and the bondage of samsara.
Mahayana Buddhism places a strong emphasis on the development of wisdom, particularly the realization of emptiness (sunyata) and the Bodhisattva's understanding of the interdependence and non-duality of all phenomena. Wisdom is seen as crucial for transcending dualistic views, freeing oneself from attachment to self and others, and realizing the ultimate truth of reality.
Keown: "The ultimate foundation of Buddhist ethics."
Ethics in Buddhism primarily involves moral conduct and living in accordance with ethical principles. This includes abstaining from harmful actions such as killing, stealing, lying, sexual misconduct, and the misuse of intoxicants (The five Precepts).
Ethical conduct provides the foundation for spiritual practice by cultivating a mind free from remorse, guilt, and conflict. It promotes harmony within oneself and with others, laying the groundwork for mental stability and clarity.
Practicing ethics helps to purify the mind, develop positive qualities such as kindness and compassion, and create favorable conditions for progress along the spiritual path.
In Theravada Buddhism, ethical conduct is highly emphasized as the foundation of spiritual practice. Practicing sila is seen as crucial for purifying the mind, generating positive karma, and laying the groundwork for meditation and wisdom. The precepts, especially the Five Precepts for lay practitioners, are upheld as fundamental guidelines for moral behavior. Ethics forms the foundation of Buddhist practice and provides the framework for living a virtuous and morally upright life. It involves cultivating wholesome actions and abstaining from harmful deeds, thereby creating conditions conducive to spiritual growth and well-being.
Practicing ethical conduct helps individuals develop a clear conscience, peace of mind, and harmonious relationships with others. It promotes a sense of integrity, trustworthiness, and respect for oneself and others. Ethical behavior also minimizes negative karmic consequences and supports progress along the spiritual path.
Mahayana Buddhism also places great importance on ethical conduct, but it may emphasize compassion (karuna) and the Bodhisattva ideal to a greater extent. Ethical behavior is not only about personal purification but also about benefiting others and working towards the liberation of all sentient beings. Mahayana practitioners may aspire to uphold not only the basic precepts but also additional vows and commitments related to altruistic actions.
Thanossaro Bhikkhu on living an ethical life: "freedom from danger."
Bodhi: "The interior quality the regular observance of these principles is intended to produce".
Meditation in Buddhism refers to the systematic cultivation of mental focus, concentration, and mindfulness. Through various meditation practices, practitioners train their minds to develop clarity, calmness, and insight.
Samadhi, or concentration, is the ability to sustain one's attention on a single object without distraction. It leads to states of deep absorption and tranquility, known as jhana or samadhi.
Meditation practices vary in form and technique, including mindfulness meditation (vipassana), concentration meditation (samatha), loving-kindness meditation (metta), and insight meditation (vipassana). These practices aim to develop insight into the nature of reality and the impermanent, unsatisfactory, and selfless nature of phenomena.
In Theravada Buddhism, meditation plays a central role in cultivating mental concentration, mindfulness, and insight. The practice of samadhi is seen as essential for calming the mind, overcoming distractions, and developing deep states of absorption (jhana). Insight meditation (vipassana) is particularly emphasized for gaining direct insight into the Three Characteristics of Existence and realizing the Four Noble Truths.
Through meditation, individuals learn to quiet the fluctuations of the mind, overcome distractions, and cultivate deep states of concentration and absorption. This leads to increased clarity, emotional balance, and insight into a) Annica, Dukkha Anatta (Theravada) b) Sunyatta interdependent nature of existence. Meditation also serves as a powerful tool for developing wisdom and realizing the ultimate truth of Nibbana.
Mahayana Buddhism also values meditation as a means of developing concentration and insight, but it may emphasize a wider range of meditation practices beyond those traditionally emphasized in Theravada. Mahayana practitioners may engage in various forms of meditation, including deity visualization practices (such as in Vajrayana), loving-kindness meditation (metta), and meditation on emptiness (sunyata), depending on the specific tradition and lineage.
Dhammapada: "What we are today comes from our thoughts yesterday."
In Buddhism, the eightfold path is meant as a guideline, to be considered, to be contemplated, and to be taken on when, and only when each step is fully accepted as part of the life you seek. Buddhism never asks for blind faith, it seeks to promote learning and a process of self-discovery.
The Noble Eightfold Path is made up of three parts (The Threefold way): wisdom, morality and meditation. Each of the steps related to one of these parts.
The Eightfold Path is part of the Middle Way of the Four Noble Truths. Gautama had experienced complete luxury and anything he ever he wanted but this was not enough for him and he was still suffering. He then experienced asceticism and gave up his possessions which also made him suffer. The Buddha taught that the only way to get past this suffering was to take a middle path between both extremes .
The Buddha described the Eightfold Path as a means to enlightenment, like a raft for crossing a river. Once one has reached the opposite shore, one no longer needs the raft and can leave it behind.
Parable of the raft – told by the Buddha- Illustrates the eightfold path ‘Monks, I will teach you Dhamma – the Parable of the raft – for crossing over, not retaining, listen to it, attend carefully and I will speak’ (Majjhima-Nikaya) The journey upon the raft is what cultivated in monastic conditions as part of the Sangha. This alone is the purpose and the journey cultivates the three categories of morality, wisdom and meditation.
We must end our suffering and what is required to do this is a radical shift in how we understand and relate to ourselves and the world. Practice of the Path is the way to achieve that. Practice of the Path reaches into all aspects of life and every moment. It's not just something you work on when you have time.
“The purpose of the Vinaya rules was to provide ideal conventions for meditation and renunciation. They try to enforce a complete withdrawal from social life, a separation from its interests and worries, and the rupture of all ties with family or clan. At the same time the insistence on extreme simplicity and frugality was meant to ensure independence, while the giving up of home and all property was intended to foster non-attachment” Conze
1. Samma ditthi (Right View) – This is a significant step on the path as it relates to seeing the world and everything in it as it really is, not as we believe it to be or want it to be. The Buddha described this as ‘the understanding of suffering, the origin of suffering, of the extinction of suffering, and of the path leading to the extinction of suffering.’ Right view is placed at the beginning of the path to show that before we can set foot on the actual practice, we need the understanding provided by right view, as our guide, our inner director, to show us where we are starting from, where we are heading, and what are the successive stages to be passed through in practice.
2. Samma sankappa (Right thought/intention) – This is thinking only pure, wholesome and positive thoughts. It is intended to produce a quality of conciosuness that is unimpeded by obstructions. There is a direct link here to kamma (P) karma (S) in that intentions generate actions. Such thoughts or intentions aim to be purely selfless, devoid of attachment and full of compassion.
3. Samma vaca (right speech) – This involves truthful and unharmful speech. It discourages lying, or cruelty to others through harsh words. It promotes purposeful, meaningful speech, conducive to spiritual development. It is crucial not just in terms of morality, but also with regards to the practice of chanting, mantras, and the power of sacred words.
4. Samma kammanta (right action) – (5 Precepts) This means that a person will not harm others through their actions e.g. through violence or theft. This extends to an awareness of others and encourages dana (charitable giving). Right action promotes a good, moral life, and links to kamma (p) karma (s) in that the word itself means action.
5. Samma ajiva (right livelihood) – This means earning a living in a way that is beneficial to others e.g. doctor and avoiding earning a living through means which harm others e.g. butcher. Again this links to kamma/karma and also to ahimsa (non-violence)
6. Samma vayana (Right Effort) - The Buddha begins the training of the mind with right effort. He places a special stress on this factor because the practice of the path requires work, energy and exertion. The Buddha says through right effort we can transform the whole structure of our lives. We are not the hopeless victims of our past conditioning. We are not the victims of our genes or of our environment., but through mental training it is possible to raise the mind to the high plateau of wisdom, enlightenment and liberation.
Dhammapada: "What we are today comes from our thoughts yesterday."
7. Samma sati (Right Mindfulness) – This means to be fully aware of ones actions and the motives for doing those actions. Right mindfulness means keeping the mind in the present. This means that whenone performs a certain task, one should be mindful and totally aware of thatact at the time of performance. For example, when one brushes his/her teeth,he/she should be mindful of this process by paying attention to it and not allow any other thoughts to intrude.
8. Samma samadhi (right concentration) – This means focussing the mind of mediation. This is defined as wholesome one-pointedness of the mind, wholesome unification of the mind. Linked with 4 Jhanas:
Passions.
Tranquillity.
Equanimity.
Pure experience.
The 4 Noble Truths and the 8-fold path are essential for all schools of Buddhism because they are the basic teachings of Buddhism taught directly by the Buddha himself.
The main aim for all Buddhists is to escape from the cycle of samsara and achieve nibbana (p) nirvana (s) and this is the way that the Buddha taught to go about this.
For Theravada Buddhists it is particularly important because they see themselves as a continuing unbroken lineage of the original Sangha set up by the Buddha himself. Therefore it is essential to preserve and pass on the Buddha’s teachings as he himself instructed. This includes the 4 Noble Truths and the 8-Fold Path.
However, it could be argued that within Theravada Buddhism the 4 Noble Truths and the 8-Fold Path are really only of great importance to monks/nuns, with lay people focusing on living a decent life and earning positive karma. They may not be spiritually ready to accept the full implications for life that following this path offers.
Mahayana Buddhists believe that they are the Greater Vehicle and that additional teachings were revealed after the death of Buddha Gautama. They may therefore focus on different teachings e.g. the Bodhisattva path, in order to reduce suffering.
It could be argued that the Eightfold Path is intended for a specific type of community – a monastery. Monastic life is very different from life of a lay person and to suggest that lay people live in this same way seems problematic
The morality part of the eightfold path has only 3 correct behaviours – speech, action and livelihood. This is far too minimal and shows that more parts of the Eightfold are needed.
Right speech and right action are applicable to a wide range of issues in life. For example, right speech discourages lying or exaggerating as well as cruelty to others through language which means lay Buddhists will be avoiding immoral behaviour.
How useful is the 8-fold path as a moral guide to life?
8-fold path contains a practical guide for ethical living e.g. right speech discourages lying and right action discourages hurtful behaviours.
It fits with out legal system e.g. right action would prohibit theft and murder
It is seen by Buddhists as a way of eliminating dukkha which would lead to an improved life for all
Links to ethical theories such as Situation Ethics
There are only 3 sections of the path devoted to ethical behaviour (right speech, right livelihood and right action). The rest is focused on abstract concepts that one could argue are not useful to non-Buddhists.
As an ethical guide it is too vague. Who defines ‘right’ actions/speech/livelihood etc? Make links to ethics units here.
It could be argued that it is designed for monks/nuns therefore it is of little value to the average lay person.
The ethical principles of the Noble Eightfold Path—right action, right speech, and right livelihood— provide guidelines for leading a virtuous and morally upright life, fostering harmony within oneself and with others.
Significance: Right action entails refraining from harmful actions that cause suffering to oneself and others. It encompasses abstaining from killing, stealing, and sexual misconduct.
Importance: Practicing right action cultivates a sense of integrity, respect, and non-violence. It contributes to the well-being of oneself and society by promoting peace, harmony, and social order.
Impact: By observing right action, individuals develop a clear conscience, free from guilt and remorse. They create positive karmic conditions that support their spiritual growth and lead to favorable outcomes in this life and future rebirths.
Significance: Right speech involves abstaining from lying, divisive speech, harsh speech, and idle gossip. It emphasizes speaking truthfully, kindly, and constructively.
Importance: Right speech fosters trust, communication, and understanding among individuals. It promotes harmonious relationships, resolves conflicts, and creates a supportive and compassionate community.
Impact: By practicing right speech, individuals cultivate mindfulness and self-awareness in their communication. They develop empathy, empathy, and sensitivity to the impact of their words on others, fostering mutual respect and emotional well-being.
Significance: Right livelihood involves earning a living in a way that is honest, ethical, and free from harm to oneself and others. It entails abstaining from professions that involve harming living beings, such as trading in weapons, killing animals, or dealing in intoxicants.
Importance: Right livelihood aligns one's work with the principles of compassion, non-violence, and social responsibility. It ensures that one's livelihood supports the welfare of oneself and others, contributing to the greater good of society.
Impact: By following right livelihood, individuals maintain a sense of integrity and dignity in their work. They experience a deep sense of satisfaction and fulfillment, knowing that their livelihood is aligned with their spiritual values and aspirations.
In Theravada Buddhism, the ethical principles of the Noble Eightfold Path hold significant importance as foundational guidelines for moral conduct and virtuous living. They are viewed as essential for purifying the mind, generating positive karma, and laying the groundwork for meditation and wisdom.
Emphasis on Individual Liberation: Theravada Buddhism often places greater emphasis on individual liberation and the pursuit of personal enlightenment. Thus, the ethical principles of right action, right speech, and right livelihood are primarily seen as means for individual practitioners to attain liberation from suffering and the cycle of samsara.
Monastic Discipline: Theravada monastic communities uphold strict adherence to ethical precepts, emphasizing the importance of moral discipline in the lives of monks and nuns. The Vinaya Pitaka, the monastic code of conduct, provides detailed guidelines for ethical behavior and training.
In Mahayana Buddhism, while the ethical principles of the Noble Eightfold Path remain important, there is often a broader emphasis on compassion (karuna) and the Bodhisattva ideal—the aspiration to attain enlightenment for the benefit of all sentient beings.
Emphasis on Altruism: Mahayana teachings highlight the interconnectedness of all beings and emphasize the cultivation of compassion and altruism as central to the spiritual path. Ethical conduct, including right action, right speech, and right livelihood, is viewed not only as a means for individual liberation but also as a way to alleviate the suffering of others and work towards the enlightenment of all beings.
Bodhisattva Vow: Mahayana practitioners may take the Bodhisattva vow, committing themselves to the welfare and liberation of all sentient beings. This vow shapes their ethical conduct, motivating them to engage in virtuous actions and compassionate activities for the benefit of others.
After the Buddha achieved enlightenment he made the decision not to keep this knowledge about dukkha to himself, but to share it with the rest of the world in order to help others further understand the nature of suffering, and the route to end it.
This was an act of great compassion. The Buddhist word for compassion is karuna. Karuna refers to the compassion that Buddhists show for the sufferings of everyone in the world.
For Buddhists it means feeling concern for the suffering of others, almost as if it were their own suffering. It means wanting others to be free of suffering and being moved to do whatever you can to relieve the suffering of others. It also means recognising when you yourself are suffering and acting with compassion towards yourself. Above all, it means recognising that no one can truly be happy while there are others in the world who are still suffering.
How could karuna help to overcome dukkha?
Is this a strong or weak response?
Metta means ‘loving-kindness.’
Buddhists strive to develop a loving, kind, friendly attitude towards themselves and others.
It is a wish for all beings to be happy and free from suffering, without expecting anything in return.
It does not even depend on the goodness of others; metta is cultivated even towards people who are hate filled.
1.How is metta different to karuna?
Metta means ‘loving-kindness.’
Buddhists strive to develop a loving, kind, friendly attitude towards themselves and others. It is a wish for all beings to be happy and free from suffering, without expecting anything in return. It does not even depend on the goodness of others; metta is cultivated even towards people who are hate filled.
Metta is a general desire to want people to be happy whereas karuna arises when metta comes into contact with a specific person who is suffering.
For example, a person might wish for world peace: this is an example of metta. However, taking action by say volunteering at a refugee camp turns this goodwill into compassion: this is an example of karuna.
Metta is a common purpose of mediation in Buddhism. Sometimes, this can take the form of a general meditation, the positive energy generated from this meditation can then be ‘donated’ to the good of others. How might a Buddhist see this as a beneficial thing to do?
Other meditations have metta as a specific focus. Try out this loving kindness meditation and then reflect on the questions below: Metta Meditation
How is metta different to karuna?
How does metta meditation attempt to promote metta?
In what ways could this sort of meditation help to promote loving kindness for a) a Buddhist and b) a non-Buddhist?
Why might some people view this sort of meditation as unhelpful? Do you agree?
Is the Buddha right to put so much emphasis on yourself when it comes to karuna and metta?
‘Loving-kindness meditations are a complete waste of time!’ Assess the validity of this statement.
Khanti translates literally as ‘patience, forbearance, and forgiveness’.
Buddhism teaches that showing forgiveness allows a person to let go of a lot of the anger and resentment that they are holding towards that person. This will reduce dukkha both for the person who has hurt you, and also for the person doing the forgiving:
“He abused me, he struck me. He overcame me, he robbed me. Of those who wrap themselves up in it hatred is not quenched.”
The Buddha in the Dhammapada verse 3
This means that Buddhists should forgive others for the sake of their own health and welfare. It is also an act of karuna to forgive others.
Holding onto the negativity and anger that so often accompanies unforgiveness will result in bad karma, whereas forgiveness results in good karma.
Khanti translates literally as ‘patience, forbearance, and forgiveness’. It is best understood through the story of Lord Sakka’s restraint. A well-known tale from Buddhist literature that illustrates the importance of self-control and virtue.
In the Samyutta Nikaya, the Buddha tells of an ancient battle between devas and asuras during which the devas were victorious and the asura king Vepacitti was captured and imprisoned. When the deva lord, Sakka visited Vepacitti in prison, Vepacitti "abused and reviled him with rude, harsh words," to which Sakka did not respond in kind. Afterwards, Sakka's charioteer questioned Sakka about this, expressing concern that some would see Sakka's response as indicative of fear or weakness. Sakka replied:
It is neither through fear nor weakness
That I am patient with Vepacitti.
How can a wise person like me
Engage in combat with a fool?
... Of goals that culminate in one's own good
None is found better than patience.
...One who repays an angry man with anger
Thereby makes things worse for himself.
Not repaying an angry man with anger,
One wins a battle hard to win.
He practices for the welfare of both,
His own and the other's,
When, knowing that his foe is angry,
He mindfully maintains his peace.
When he achieves the cure of both —
His own and the other's —
The people who consider him a fool
Are unskilled in the Dhamma.[5]
The Buddha then commended to his followers Sakka's praise for "patience and gentleness“.
Why does Lord Sakka refuse to take revenge on King Vepacitti?
What is the teaching behind this story?
How does this story link to karuna and metta?
Do you agree with the values promoted in this teaching? Try to consider the question from different sides before forming a conclusion.
How could this story be applied to a modern day conflict? Do you think it could be beneficial in a modern day context?.
Section A
Explore the key ideas of the Four Noble Truths. 8 mks (2019 AS Q)
Explore key beliefs about nibbana. 8 mks (2022 AS Q)
Explore the key teachings of the Three-fold Way (2023 AS Q)
Assess the significance of metta for Buddhists. (12) (2022 AS Q)
Assess the significance of karuna for Buddhists. (2022 Q)
Section B
3b Analyse the significance of the relationship of metta (love), karuna (compassion) and khanti (patience) to the Four Noble Truths. (2019 AS Q)
3b Analyse the meaning and purpose of life for Buddhists. (2022 AS Q)
Section C
4. Evaluate the meaning and significance of the Eightfold Path in the contemporary world. (2019 Q)