Aristotle

Key Words  - 

Virtue, eudaimonia, Teleos/End/Purpose,  habit/Habituation, Golden mean/mean, Agent Centred 

OTHER arete, character, excellence,  moral, intellectual, phronesis, extremes, sophron, enkrates, akrates, akrasia, wisdom, Jesus, Beatitudes, ‘blessed’, meek, merciful. 

Key Scholars

Aristotle (384 BCE - 322 BCE ) 

Elizabeth Anscombe (1919 -2001CE)

Alistair McIntyre  (1929 -E)

Key Texts

Aristotle’s Nichomachean Ethics. 

After Virtue Alastair Macintyre

Modern Moral Philosophy Elizabeth Anscombe

Context

• Has roots in Aristotle and Christianity but has been revived in 20th century by Alistair Macintyre and Elizabeth Anscombe.

Aristotle’s Virtue Ethics

Virtue theory is associated with Aristotle’s Nichomachean Ethics. Virtue is a Greek word - arete (άρετή) - the theory is sometimes called aretaic ethics.

• The focus is on developing one’s moral character and not blind obedience to ethical codes. To develop one’s moral character one develops virtuous habits.

• The goal is to achieve competence (moral excellence) in two types of virtues: moral (e.g. temperance, generosity etc.) and intellectual (wisdom etc.).

• Virtuous behaviour is developed by applying wisdom to attain the highest human good, eudaimonia, meaning human flourishing or human well-being.

• Intellectual virtues bring the knowledge required for being educated and applying the reason (often referred to as practical reason) – phronesis – to ensure moral virtues are developed. Virtuous habits are learned to perfection so that they become second nature as a result of reasoned reflection on habits and by contemplating the failures and successes human action.

• For Aristotle virtuous behaviour is the ‘mean’ between extremes of excesses; however, he states ‘in everything it is no easy task to find the middle’.

• Aristotle’s doctrine of the mean produces three types of person: (1) the sophron who naturally lives in the mean without effort; (2) the enkrates who is tempted but strong enough will power to live in the mean; and, (3) the akrates who is weak and cannot live in the mean by overcoming temptation of the vices. Such a character according to Aristotle is said to be incontinent (akrasia).

• Many commentators on Aristotle identify four key virtues that are of most importance: temperance (moderation); courage; together with justice; and, wisdom.

• These virtues were seen to be the most important for a character to develop, with wisdom being the virtue that manages and drives them all.

Challenges

• There are several challenges to Virtue Theory, including: It is not a precise science – the idea of virtues is vague. It does not provide specific ethical norms for concrete ethical dilemmas such as abortion and war. This makes it difficult to apply. The notion of a specific virtue is relative to individuals and cultures, making the theory arbitrary. Aristotle admitted himself it was difficult to define the mean; how can this be a suitable moral guide for society? As an arbitrary system it is open to abuse. For instance, one can be virtuous but commit acts which others would find immoral.

• Some consider it elitetist as Aristotle claims that we all have the potential to develop these intellectual and moral virtues, however it is likely that only a few people will be able to cultivate potential virtues into actual virtues

Strengths

• Some philosophers would argue that Virtue theory puts ethical rules and norms in their rightful place.

• No complex procedure of decision making. It trusts that a virtuous person will make good moral choices.

• Recognises morality as a  developmental process – takes into account moral psychology

• Emphasis on enjoying life and it being good to live virtuously

• Considers life as a whole –  one good deed doesn’t make a saint.

Weaknesses

• Some philosophers argue that dependence on virtue alone is dangerous or misleading.

• Does not offer solutions to dilemmas. Two virtuous people may disagree on the right thing to do.

•  Not everyone has an equal opportunity to grow up morally should we treat them any different?

• Is there really a direct link between virtue and eudaimonia (happiness) Many un-virtuous people appear to live happy lives

• Culturally relativist – cannot tell us which cultures virtues are better.

•  In a multi-cultural society, who decides what the virtues should be?

Modern Virtue ethics

Virtue ethics has seen a revival in recent year with theories from philosopher such asElizabeth Anscombe,  P Foot and A MacIntyre.  This revival has partly been a response to ethical theories that are act centred or consequentialist and therefore take the focus away from the development of the person in ethical decision making.  In the 20th Century Elizabeth Anscombe was unhappy about the act- centred ethical theories. Modern versions of Virtue Ethics argue that the assessment of a person’s character is an important aspect of our ethical thought and needs to be included in any ethical theory. In 1958 Anscombe published a paper called ‘Modern Moral Philosophy’ and put forward the idea that modern moral philosophy is misguided, asking if there can be any moral laws if there is no God- what do right and wrong mean without a law giver? Anscombe suggests an answer in the idea of eudaimonia, human flourishing, which does not depend on any God.  Both Kantian ethics and Utilitarianism do not depend on God, but they are still act-based and ignore the person who acts. She also thought that act-based ethics does not make sense because it ignores a belief people no longer hold, and in stressing the principle of autonomy it neglects the community aspect of morality.

Possible Exam Questions PEQs

Section A

8 mark

Explore the concepts of living well and eudaimonia in virtue ethics

Explore one contemporary theory of virtue ethics

Explore the historical and cultural influences on virtue ethics

12 mark

Analyse the strength of virtue ethics as an ethical theory for moral decision making (12)

Analyse to what extent humans can live a virtuous life (12)

 Section B

20 mark

Assess whether the strengths of virtue ethics outweigh the weaknesses. (20)

Assess the strength of the golden mean in guiding ethical decision making. (20)

Section C

30 mark

Evaluate the claim that virtue ethics fails to offer an authoritative basis for moral decision making.

Evaluate the claim that neither virtue ethics or deontology offer a useful approach to moral decision making.

Evaluate the view that virtue ethics fails as an ethical theory for moral decision making 

Stretch and challenge/Suggested further reading

 P Vardy- Puzzle of Ethics: Ch 3: Aristotle and virtue theory

 P Vardy- Puzzle of Ethics Ch 8: MacIntyre: Virtue theory revisited.

 https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-ethics/

 Panpsycast- Episode 28 (4 parts) Aristotle’s virtue ethics