BUDDHISM

A Level Religious Studies

Buddhist Teachings

The Three Refuges Unit 1.3 

Introduction

There is always a debate as to whether Buddhism is a religion in that it does not follow the pattern of other major world religions. The rich diversity of Buddhism reflects the attitude of the Buddha and his followers to what religion is for. The Buddha stressed that his teaching was not to be taken as something sacred itself but as a means to an end. The Buddha compared the teaching to a raft that was able to take you from one place to another. Consulting Buddhist teaching is like going to the doctor – you accept that there is something wrong, you want to what the problem is and how to remedy it. In this respect, Buddhism is a practical philosophy about the human condition. Much of Buddhist teaching is presented in lists of principles. This can make it both easy and confusing to understand Buddhism.

With reference to the ideas of D Keown and B Bodhi. What you need to know:

Topic         

Content

Key Knowledge

Religious Beliefs values and Teachings 2.1 The four Noble Truths

·         Four Noble Truths Dukkha,

·         Types of Dukkha

·         D Keown and B Bodhi

·         The Three Poisons

·         Greed, Hatred, Ignorance as unwholesome mental qualities

·         Generosity, Love, Wisdom as wholesome mental qualities

·         Four Noble Truths -samudaya/tanha

·         Types of desire

·         Four Noble Truths -nirodha

·         Nirodha

·         the nature of Enlightenment and nibbana

·         The Eightfold Path

Ø  magga – forth Noble Truth

Ø  Three-fold Way: ethics, meditation and wisdom

·         qualities of metta, karuna and khanti

·         the relationship between these principles and the Four Noble truths

You need to understand the issues raised by Buddhist teachings, including:

·         how the four noble truths, three poisons, are understood in Theravada and Mahayana, both historically and in the contemporary world.

·         whether or not Buddhists agree on the goal being enlightenment.

·         what is the relationship between the principles and qualities of metta, karuna and khanti and the Four Noble truths

·         whether or not it is possible to achieve Nibanna.

·         What significant things D Keown and B Bodhi have said about Buddhisay about  Religious Beliefs values and Teachings

Key Words

Dukkha – Suffering

Samudaya – the arising of dukkha

Nirodha – the cessation of dukkha

Magga – the way, also the eightfold path

The Three Poisons– the hindrances to the goal- greed Hatred and ignorance

The Three fold way – a shortened summary of the eightfold path

Tanha – Desire or craving

Nirvana / Nibanna – the goal of becoming one with the universe

Theravada – the Buddhist tradition focused on the ‘way of the elders’, using the Arahat Path and gaining enlightenment thus Nibanna.

Mahayana – the Buddhist tradition focused on the path of the Bodhisttva to become a compassionate being

Unit 1.1 Four Noble Truths-

The Four Noble Truths are the central teachings or Dhamma of Buddhism. You will need to consider the Three Poisons, the Buddha’s teaching on suffering and the cessation of craving/desire. An understanding of the Four Noble Truths should reference the nature of Enlightenment and nibbana/nirvana.

"There are those with little dust in their eyes. These people need the dhamma."

The Buddha

The Buddha taught the Four Noble Truths in his first sermon at the Deer Park, Isipatana.

They are

I)             Dukkha

II)            Samudaya (the arising of dukkha)

III)           Nirodha (the cessation of dukkha)

IV)         Magga (the way)

These truths are usually explained as follows:

All life is dukkha.

Dukkha is caused by tanha ('thirst', desire. attachment. craving).

Tanha can be overcome, therefore dukkha can be overcome.

Tanha can be overcome by following the path.

The First Noble Truth – dukkha

Dukkha refers to the ‘suffering’ or ‘unsatisfactoriness’ of life. A person might temporarily fulfil their desires but suffering – whether physical, emotional or mental – cannot be avoided.

Types of suffering

• Dukkha-dukkha – the suffering of suffering. This refers to the physical and emotional discomfort and pain all humans experience in their lives.

• Viparinama-dukkha – the suffering of change. This refers to the suffering that arises from an inability to accept change. People cling to pleasurable experiences and feel sad when they pass, and they cannot accept the truth of impermanence.

• Sankhara-dukkha – the suffering of existence. This could almost be described as background suffering. It is the profound unsatisfactoriness of existence, caused simply by existence.

Questions:

1.    What is does the word Dhamma mean?

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2.    Explain he idea of Dukkha.

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3.    Explain what the second noble truth is.

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4.    What might dust in their eys be a reference to?

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5.    Explain what the three types of Dukka?

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The Second Noble Truth – samudaya

The Second Noble Truth is known as samudaya. The word ‘samudaya’ means ‘arising’ and refers to the roots of suffering (where suffering or unsatisfactoriness ‘arise’ from). The Second Noble Truth describes the causes (or roots) of suffering.

Humans suffer because of cravings, or tanha, which can be translated as ‘thirst’. Craving keeps humans attached to existence. It means humans are reincarnated again and again, or ‘arise’ again and again.

Tanha

There are three types of craving:

• Kama-tanha is craving pleasures of the senses, wealth or power.

• Bhava-tanha is craving for a fixed identity or existence and not accepting that life is impermanent.

• Vibhava-tanha is craving to avoid pain and suffering, or to avoid the reality of rebirth.

The Three Poisons

The basic causes of suffering are known as the Three Poisons: greed, ignorance and hatred. These are often represented as a rooster (greed), a pig (ignorance) and a snake (hatred). In the Pali language, which is the language of the Buddha, these three creatures are known as lobha (greed), moha (ignorance) and dosa (hatred).

In the Buddhist teachings, the three poisons (of ignorance, attachment, and aversion) are the primary causes that keep sentient beings trapped in samsara. These three poisons are said to be the root of all of the other kleshas.

All suffering is ultimately caused by these human urges. People might suffer because they cannot accept change (viparinama-dukkha) or because they have become attached to possessions or sensation (sankhara-dukkha). However, the roots of all suffering are greed, ignorance and hatred.

The three poisons are represented in the hub of the wheel of life as a pig, a bird, and a snake (representing ignorance, attachment, and aversion, respectively). As shown in the wheel of life (Sanskrit: bhavacakra), the three poisons lead to the creation of karma, which leads to rebirth in the six realms of samsara.

Opposite wholesome qualities

The three wholesome mental factors that are identified as the opposites of the three poisons are:

·         amoha (non-delusion) or prajna (wisdom)

·         alobha (non-attachment) or dāna (generosity)

·         adveṣa (non-hatred) or mettā (loving-kindness)

Questions:

1.    What is does the word samudaya mean?

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2.    Explain the idea of Tanha.

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3.    Explain the three different types of Tanha.

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4.    What are the three poisons?

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5.    Explain each of the three poisons and how they might be related?

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The Third Noble Truth – nirodha

The Third Noble Truth concerns the solution to suffering, which is an end to craving.

This truth is called nirodha, meaning ‘cessation’ or stopping. By attempting to stop all craving, Buddhists can break the cycle of craving and arising. In this way, they will no longer be reborn into another life of suffering.

Nirvana and enlightenment

Nirvana can be understood as being freed from continual rebirth into samsara. The soul is finally ‘blown out’ and is freed from suffering. Enlightenment, which is the state of being awake to the true nature of reality, is necessary for nirvana to be attained.

Mahayana and Theravada Buddhism have different understandings of enlightenment:

• Mahayana Buddhists follow the path of the Bodhisattva. A Bodhisattva is a being who has attained enlightenment but remains in samsara until all other beings have been freed from suffering.

• Theravada Buddhists follow the path of the Arhat. An Arhat is a being who has attained enlightenment through perfect understanding and perfect compassion. At death, they will not be reborn into samsara, but will have achieved nirvana.

Dhammapada 1-2

The first two verses of the Dhammapada affirm the importance of gaining control of the mind:

All mental phenomena have mind as their forerunner; they have mind as their chief; they are mind-made. If one speaks or acts with an evil mind, dukkha follows them just as the wheel follows the hoofprint of the ox that draws the cart. Dhammapada, Chapter 1, Verse 1

Unkind or greedy thoughts will yield unpleasant actions, while loving and compassionate thoughts will yield loving actions. If one speaks or acts with a pure mind, happiness follows them like a shadow that never leaves them (Dhammapada, Chapter 1, Verse 2). Dhammapada 2 explains that cultivating mindfulness is the pathway to nirvana.

What is Nibbāna / Nirvāna in Theravada?

The word ‘Nibbāna’ literally means ‘blowing out’ or ‘extinguishing’. It refers to the extinguishing of the fires of craving, hatred and ignorance (the three poisons). These are the causes of suffering so removing them equals removing suffering itself. Nibbāna is the Third Noble Truth, the cessation of suffering (nirodha).

“What is Nirvāna? ’The extinction of craving, the extinction of hatred, the extinction of delusion.’ said the Buddha’s disciple Śāriputra” Samyutta Nikāya, VI.252

To non-Buddhists, Nibbāna can be seen as a kind of self-annihilation or nothingness which turns us into boring, lifeless beings. They are horrified at the idea of no longer having passions or emotions. For Buddhists, however, Nibbāna is a state beyond human perception. It is a transcendental state that is associated with joy, happiness, serenity, gentleness, compassion, kindness, tolerance and understanding – the qualities of an Arahat.

On the one hand, Nibbāna is see as the result of many years or even lifetimes of practice. On the other hand, it is not the result of anything – if it were the result of something, it would mean it has a cause and, therefore, conditioned and permanent. Like all mystical states, Nibbāna is beyond our control.

‘The Questions of King Milinda’ (see below) illustrates this by saying that the path does not cause a mountain, it just leads there.

Two kinds of Nibbāna (Theravada)

1. Buddhism is unique in the belief that its religious goal can be achieved in this life. This is known as Nibbāna with remainder as, although Nibbāna has been achieved, the person still has a physical body which limits them. The Arahat still experiences dukkha- dukkhatā as they are still within the bounds of saṃsāra. However, the pain does not lead to anxiety as the mind is unaffected, undisturbed and totally concentrated.

2. After death, an Arahat achieves parinibbāna or Nibbāna without remainder. They are now free from the body and from rebirth; the reconstitution of the five khandas will not take place after death as there is no more kammic energy keeping them in saṃsāra.

Is it possible to fully describe Nibbāna?

However, Nibbāna cannot be fully described due to the limitations of our language. Words only apply to things within the conditioned world and, since Nibbāna is unconditioned, words are inappropriate. When asked to describe and explain Nibbāna, the monk Vimalakīrti expressed its ineffability by saying it is ‘the thunderous silence of Vimalakīrti’. The Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra compares the use of language in explaining Nibbāna to an elephant that gets stuck in mud.

Nevertheless, if we are going to give any description of Nibbāna we are going to have to use words. There are two ways of doing this:

1. We can describe Nibbāna in positive terms, i.e. by saying what it is. We can do this by using metaphors, in the knowledge that the description is insufficient, and we must not get attached to it. Some examples are:

• Like cool water that relieves fever, Nibbāna relieves the fever of passions.

• Like medicine that puts an end to illness, Nibbāna puts an end to all sufferings.

• Like an unshakeable mountain peak, Nibbāna is unshakeable.

• Like the wind that you cannot actually see, Nibbāna is there but you cannot point to it.

2. We can describe Nibbāna in negative terms, i.e. by saying what it is not. This allows us to state ways in which Nibbāna is different to things in the world, but we must not assume that it is a state of nothingness.

• It is not something that is produced, nor is it unproduced.

• It is not past, or future, or present.

• It cannot be perceived by the senses.

• It is extinction or absence of craving, hatred and ignorance.

• It is freedom / absence from suffering.

• It is freedom from rebirth.

Questions:

1.    What does the Pali Cannon say about Nibanna?

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2.    What are the two types of Nibanna?

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3.    Explain why some think Niabnna cannot be described?

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4.    Explain how Nibanna could be explained in positive terms?

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5.    Explain how Nibanna could be explained in negative terms?

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What is Nibanna? -Nirvāna in the 80th dilemma of the Questions of King Milinda

‘The Questions of King Milinda’ is a Buddhist text dating back to between 100BCE and 200CE. It is written in the form of a dialogue between the Buddhist philosopher Nāgasena and King Milinda (aka the Indo-Greek King Menander). The writings are part of the Burmese version of the Pāli Canon, but they are not canonical in Thai or Sri Lankan Buddhism. An abridge version is included in the Chinese Mahāyāna translations of the canon. The 80th dilemma of King Milinda deals with the nature of Nirvāna. King Milinda poses the following question:

'Venerable Nāgasena, this Nirvāṇa that you are always talking of - can you make clear by metaphor, or explanation, or reason, or argument, the form, or figure, or duration, or measure of it?'

Nāgasena responds by saying:

 'Nirvāna, O king, has nothing similar to it. By no metaphor, or explanation, or reason, or argument can its form, or figure, or duration, or measure be made clear.'

King Milinda is not satisfied with this response, claiming that if something exists, it must be possible give some measure of it. Nāgasena asks the King if he can tell him how much water there is in the ocean and how many creatures live within it. The King states that would be impossible. Likewise, Nāgasena says, is it impossible to describe Nirvāna.

Having ruled out being able to describe Nirvāna, Nāgasena then states that there are qualities of Nirvāṇa that can be explained through analogy. These are qualities of: lotus, water, medicine, ocean, food, space, wishing gem, red sandalwood, ghee and mountain peak.

Read the text for yourself for more detail; here are just some rephrased examples given by Nāgasena:

• As the lotus is untarnished by the water, so Nirvāṇa is untarnished by any evil dispositions.

• As water allays the thirst of men and beasts when they are exhausted and anxious, craving for drink, and tormented by thirst, so does Nirvāṇa allay the thirst of the craving after lusts, the craving after future life, and the craving after worldly prosperity.

• As medicine puts an end to diseases, so does Nirvāṇa put an end to griefs.

• As the ocean is empty of corpses, so also is Nirvāṇa empty of the dead bodies of all evil dispositions.

• As food is the support of the life of all beings, so is Nirvāna, when it has been realised, the support of life, for it puts an end to old age and death.

• As space is neither is born nor grows old, neither dies nor passes away nor is reborn (has a future life to spring up into), as it is incompressible, cannot be carried off by thieves, rests on nothing, is the sphere in which birds

fly, is unobstructed, and is infinite; so is Nirvāna.

• As the wishing-gem causes delight, so also does Nirvāna.

• As red sandal wood is hard to get, so is Nirvāṇa hard to attain.

• As ghee is beautiful in colour, so also is Nirvāṇa beautiful in righteousness.

• As a mountain peak is very lofty, so also is Nirvāṇa very exalted.

Questions:

1.    What is The Questions of King Milinda’?

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2.    What does king Milanda ask of Nāgasena and how does he respond?

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3.    Explain why some think Niabnna cannot be described?

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4.    List some of the phases used to describe Nibanna in positive ways?

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5.    List some of the phases used to describe Nibanna in negative ways?

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Nirvāṇa in Mahāyāna Buddhism

The Two Truths doctrine

On the topic of Nirvāna, the Mādhyamaka teacher Nāgārjuna wrote:

"Nothing of Saṃsāra is different from Nirvāna, nothing of Nirvāṇa is different from Saṃsāra. That which is the limit of Nirvāṇa is also the limit of Saṃsāra, there is not the slightest difference between the two.” Nāgārjuna, Mūlamadhyamakakārikā

Mahāyāna Buddhists understand Nirvāṇa and Saṃsāra within the framework of the Two Truths – conventional truth and ultimate truth. According to Mādhyamaka philosophy, the ultimate truth of all things is that they are empty of inherent existence, so they do not exit independently, permanently or as a single entity. Nāgārjuna believed that some scholars of the Theravāda tradition treated Nirvāṇa as if it were an exception to this rule, as something unproduced and that existed independently of anything else. Nāgārjuna believed this was a serious mistake as there are no exceptions to the principle that the ultimate nature of everything is emptiness (śūnyatā).

On the ultimate level, the truth is that Nirvāṇa and Saṃsāra are śūnyatā; they are empty of independent nature and therefore have the same nature as each other. On a relative level, however, the conventional truth is that they are very different and defined in relation to each other as opposites. Nāgārjuna’s statement must be seen as referring specifically to the ultimate state of things, as distinct from the way they appear to us conventionally.

Nirvāṇa and Buddhahood

The other major difference between the Mahāyāna and Theravāda views on Nirvāṇa is that for Mahāyāna Buddhists, Nirvāṇa is not the ultimate goal. The Mahāyāna tradition distinguishes Nirvāṇa from complete Buddhahood. Achieving Nirvāṇa is worthwhile but it is only a provisional goal, a temporary resting place on the long road to full Buddhahood. The experience of Nirvāṇa will come to an end with a fortunate rebirth and the individual then continues on the path. This view is linked to the Mahāyāna concept of skilful means (upaya): the Buddha adapted his teachings to the needs of his audience and offered the concept of Nirvāṇa as a goal for those who were suffering intensely and whose deepest wish was to be free from suffering. The prospect of a mental state in which suffering, and its causes are totally eliminated is effective in motivating people to follow a spiritual path. However, for those who are suffering less intensely, whose karma is somewhat purified and who have already lived many virtuous lives, there is a greater goal which embraces not only the elimination of suffering for oneself, but the ability to lead others to enlightenment – the Bodhisattva path.

The parable of the phantom city

 illustrates the concepts of Nirvāna, Buddhahood and the Three Vehicles: Monks, you must understand this. The Thus Come One in his use of expedient means penetrates deeply into the nature of living beings. He knows how their minds delight in petty doctrines and how deeply they are attached to the five desires. And because they are like this, when he expounds nirvāna, he does so in such a way that these persons, hearing it, can readily believe and accept it.

"Let us suppose there is a stretch of bad road five hundred yojanas long, steep and difficult, wild and deserted, with no inhabitants around, a truly fearful place. And suppose there are a number of people who want to pass over this road so they can reach a place where there are rare treasures. They have a leader, of comprehensive wisdom and keen understanding, who is thoroughly acquainted with this steep road, knows the layout of its passes and defiles, and is prepared to guide the group of people and go with them over this difficult terrain. The group he is leading, after going part way on the road, become disheartened and say to the leader,

"We are utterly exhausted and fearful as well. We cannot go any farther. Since there is still such a long distance ahead, we would like now to turn around and go back.”

The leader, a man of many expedients, thinks to himself, ‘What a pity that they should abandon the many rare treasures they are seeking and want to turn and go back!’ Having had this thought, he resorts to the power of expedient means and, when they have gone three hundred yojanas along the steep road, conjures up a city.

He says to the group, 'Don't be afraid! You must not turn back, for now here is a great city where you can stop, rest, and do just as you please. If you enter this city you will be completely at ease and tranquil. Then later, if you feel you can go on to the place where the treasure is, you can leave the city.'

At that time the members of the group, being utterly exhausted, are overjoyed in mind, exclaiming over such an unprecedented event, 'Now we can escape from this dreadful road and find ease and tranquillity!' The people in the group thereupon press forward and enter the city where, feeling that they have been saved from their difficulties, they have a sense of complete ease and tranquillity.

At that time the leader, knowing that the people have become rested and are no longer fearful or weary, wipes out the phantom city and says to the group, 'You must go now. The place where the treasure is close by. That great city of a while ago was a mere phantom that I conjured up so that you could rest.'

Monks, the Thus Come One is in a similar position. He is now acting as a great leader for you. He knows that the bad road of birth and death and earthly desires is steep, difficult, long and far stretching, but that it must be travelled, it must be passed over. If living beings hear only of the one Buddha vehicle, then they will not want to see the Buddha, will now want to draw near him, but will immediately think to themselves, The Buddha road is long and far reaching and one must labour diligently and undergo difficulties over a long period before he can ever attain success!

The Buddha knows that the minds of the living beings are timid, weak and lowly, and so, using the power of expedient means, he preaches two nirvānas in order to provide a resting place along the road. If living beings choose to remain in these two stages, then the Thus Come One will say to them, 'You have not yet understood that is to be done. This stage where you have chosen to remain is close to the Buddha wisdom. But you should observe and ponder further. This Nirvāṇa that you have attained is not the true one. It is simply that the Thus Come One, using the power of expedient means, has taken the one Buddha vehicle and, making distinctions, has preached it as three.'

Questions:

1.    Explain the two truth doctrine?

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2.    Who believed it was a serious mistake as there are no exceptions to the principle that the ultimate nature of everything is emptiness (śūnyatā)and why?

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3.    Explain what is Buddhahood in Mahayana thinking?

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4.    Explain Upaya or skilful means and the link to Buddhahood?

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5.    Pick a quote from The parable of the phantom city and explain its teachings?

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The Mahāyāna concept of Tathāgatagarbha

(literally ‘the womb of the thus-come-one’) sheds light on why Mahāyāna Buddhists see Nirvāṇa in this way. Tathāgatagarbha is also known as Buddha-Nature, Buddha- Embryo or Buddha-Essence, meaning that there is the essence of a Buddha within all sentient beings. Nirvāṇa is within us all the time and we will realise it once we have purified our ignorance and confusion. We do not have to achieve something or gain new wisdom but rid ourselves from something that prevents us from realising something that is already there. Thus, for Mahāyāna Buddhists, enlightenment is immanent and fundamentally

accessible.

What is the difference between Nirvāṇa from Buddhahood?

The difference between Nirvāṇa from Buddhahood is a subtle one:

• Nirvāṇa is freedom from saṃsāra and the cycle of rebirth. It is attained through the realisation of anattā, the principle that there is no essence or inherent entity that constitutes identity – there is nothing I can truly call ‘me’.

• Buddhahood is a development Nirvāna. Mahāyāna Buddhism extends the realisation of anattā to all phenomena, giving rise to the realisation of śūnyatā, the lack of independent existence in all things, without exception. Realising śūnyatā as the nature of all things brings the omniscience of Buddhahood.

Śūnyatā and Buddhahood in the Heart Sūtra

Dating back to the end of the 6th century, the Heart Sūtra is a popular sūtra in Mahāyāna Buddhism; it is said to be the most commonly recited, copied and studied scripture. It is the shortest of the Prajnāpāramitāh Sūtras, 40 Mahāyāna texts that show that Mahāyāna Buddhis is the ‘Greater Vehicle’. They are considered Buddha Vacana – ‘divine’ utterances of the Sambhogakāya. The name Prajnāpāramitāh literally means ‘the wisdom that has gone beyond’ or ‘perfect wisdom’, and the Heart Sūtra’s original name, Prajnāpāramitāhṛdaya Sūtra, literally means the ‘Heart of perfect wisdom Sūtra’.

The Heart Sūtra’s theme is the Two Truths doctrine. The text is full of paradoxes, repetitive and meditational in nature. Truth cannot be grasped intellectually but has to be realised in an experiential way through the heart – hence the name. The Heart Sūtra opens the gateway to understanding other specifically Mahāyāna texts.

In the text, Avalokiteśvara addresses Śāriputra, explaining the fundamental emptiness of all phenomena, including the five aggregates, the fundamental Buddhist teachings such as the Four Noble Truths. Although these are conventional truths, they are not ultimate truths. Ultimate truth is beyond understanding. The Bodhisattva relies on perfect wisdom to achieve Buddhahood (go to ‘the other shore’).

Questions:

1.    Explain the Mahayana idea of Tathāgatagarbha?

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2.    What does śūnyatā mean and how is related to anatta?

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3.    Explain what the heart sutra teaches?

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The Fourth Noble Truth – magga

The Fourth Noble Truth offers a path through which Buddhists can overcome their craving. It is called the Eightfold Path, or magga, meaning ‘path’.

Once a person has decided to pursue Buddhist principles in order to decrease their suffering, find inner calm, or even attain enlightenment and nirvana, they can follow the magga.

Udana 8.1, 8.3

This teaching book, which is part of one of the nikayas uses the phrase ‘unbinding’ to suggest to Buddhists how to free themselves from craving. They should ‘unbind’ or untie themselves from craving and desire, and so become free.

Magga-Vibhanga Sutta

This teaching book (‘sutta’), which is part of the Samyutta Nikaya, contains an analysis of the magga, or Eightfold Path. The Buddha explains each element of the path and offers explanations and advice.

The Threefold Way

The Buddha taught that the path to nirvana requires three main approaches. Together, they are called the Threefold Way. They can be summarised into three categories:

• Ethics – people who follow the Buddhist Dhamma must live in a way that minimises harm and develops love, kindness and courage.

• Meditation – this compassionate way of living helps people to have a clear conscience and a calm mind, allowing effective meditation practice.

• Wisdom – meditation is the basis of achieving understanding, or wisdom. It also helps people to learn and practice, which are necessary to become ‘one who is awake’ to the nature of reality.

Dhammapada 111 - In this passage, 500 thieves accept the Buddha’s teaching and are welcomed into the Sangha. The Buddha explains that gaining insight, however badly one behaves prior to this, is to be welcomed, as it is the essential first step to enlightenment.

 The magga is often imagined as a wheel, an ancient symbol of teaching in India

The Threefold Way:

The Eightfold Path, or magga, is a more detailed development of the Threefold Way. Individuals take steps in their own ‘way’, and they will find some of these steps harder than others. Below are the eight steps of the Eightfold Path, shown in relation to the Threefold Way:

ETHICS

MEDITATION

WISDOM

Right Speech – Avoiding lies, gossip and negative speech; speaking truthfully and kindly

Right Effort – Working to develop a positive state of mind, free from craving and hatred

Right Understanding – Learning and coming to understand the Buddha’s teachings (Dhamma)

Right Action – Acting in a loving and peaceful way; avoiding conflict and harm; restraint in seeking pleasures

Right Mindfulness – Developing mindful awareness of the body, the mind and the nature of reality

Right Intention – Being committed to developing the attitudes needed to learn from the Dhamma

Right Livelihood – Making a living in a way that does not cause harm to living creatures, exploit others or sell harmful items

Right Concentration – Working towards a state of mental focus necessary for effective meditation

Questions:

1.    Explain what the udana says about the nature of the path?

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2.    What the purpose of the path?

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3.    Explain how the three fold way groups the eight parts of the path?

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D Keown on the Four Noble Truths (A very short introduction to Buddhism)

Keown helpfully introduces the ideas of the Four noble truths in his very short introduction.  He begins by citing the 5th century thinker Buddhagosha’s metaphor to give a traditional way of explaining the four noble truths as: The Disease, the Cause, the Cure, the Medicine'.'

‘Medical analogy: the Buddha as doctor – first, he diagnoses the disease, second, explains its cause, third, determines that a cause exists, and fourth, sets out the treatment.’

Keown describes the four Noble Truths as follows

Noble Truth 1: The Truth of Suffering (Dukkha)

The suffering is not so much pain as unsatisfactoriness: “not to get what one wants is suffering” In his second sermon the Buddha analyzes human nature into 5 factors:

1.            the physical body (rūpa)

2.            sensations and feelings (vedanā)

3.            cognitions (saññā)

4.            character traits and dispositions (sankhāra)

5.            sentiency (viññāna)

(There is no immortal soul to bind these things together, unlike in Hinduism (atman))

So what is it that is reborn continually? Answer, a person’s moral identity.

However, suffering is inevitable, given the makeup of humans, because just as a car will breakdown, eventually the combination of these five factors will rearrange and decay, causing suffering.

The Buddha said that the first noble truth was the hardest to grasp: akin to admitting that one has a serious disease, but until you recognize this there can be no hope of a cure.

Noble Truth 2: The Truth of Arising (Samudāya)

In the Fire Sermon, the Buddha spoke of all human experience as being ‘ablaze’ with desire, an apt metaphor, because fire consumes what it feeds on without being satisfied, spreads rapidly, becomes attached to new objects and “burns with the pain of unassuaged longing.” Desire is like the fuel of the car (not to mix metaphors or anything) mentioned above: desire binds us to life and causes rebirth.

3 types of tanhā (a narrower term than desire, connoting desire that has been somehow perverted) which are the three roots of evil:

1.            thirst for sensual pleasure (sights, sounds, tastes, et. al.) (greed)

2.            thirst for existence (delusion)

3   desire to destroy (low self-esteem is this desire attached to the self) (hatred)

Positive versus negative desires:

tanhā: the desire for another cigarette

chanda: the desire to give up smoking (good because it breaks the cyclic pattern of a compulsive negative habit)

The three roots of evil are represented in Buddhist art as a cock, a pig and a snake chasing each other with their tails in each other’s mouths, representing the cycle of rebirth. How this comes about is explained in a teaching called paticca-samuppāda (origination-in-dependence) [note: this notion is really developed by the Mahāyāna philosopher Nāgājuna (see unit 3.2 Mahayana]. This is a twelve-stage process, but can be boiled down to the idea that nothing exists for itself, uncaused, but only comes into being as part of a network of causes: everything depends on something else. Everything that comes into being has three ‘marks’:

1.            unsatisfactoriness (dukkha)

2.            impermanence (anicca)

3.            the absence of self-essence (anattā).

These are interrelated: unsatisfactory because impermanent because lacking self-essence.

In sum: the Buddhist universe is characterized by cyclic change:

Psychological level: craving and gratification

Personal level: death and rebirth

Cosmic level: creation and destruction of galaxies

Noble Truth 3: The Truth of Cessation (Nirodha)

Craving (and thus suffering) can be removed by attaining nirvana. There are two kinds of nirvana:

·         nirvana-in-this-life – this the Buddha attained at age 35 by reaching enlightenment

·         final nirvana – this the Buddha achieved in dying, by escaping the cycle of life and rebirth.

Nirvana means ‘quenching’ or ‘blowing out’ and what is extinguished are the three roots of evil which lead to rebirth. Without them, after nirvana-in-this-life, one has a transformed state of personality, characterized by peace, deep spiritual joy, compassion, and a refined and subtle awareness.

What happened to the Buddha after death? (i.e., what is the nature of final nirvana)? Apparently neither annihilation nor immortality. The Buddha discouraged queries about its nature, comparing the questioner to someone struck with a poisoned arrow (analogous to the fact of the cycle of rebirth) who, instead of just pulling it out, proceeds to ask a string of questions about the person who shot it.

Noble Truth 4: The Truth of the Path (Magga)  

The highest form of life is one which leads to the development of virtue and knowledge, and the Eightfold Path sets out a way to live to achieve those.

The Eightfold Path (AKA the Middle Way )

1.            Right Understanding } acceptance of Buddhist teachings } Wisdom

2.            Right Resolve } (Paññā) committing to developing right attitudes } Wisdom

3.            Right Speech } telling the truth, speaking in a thoughtful } and sensitive way } ethics

4.            Right Action } Morality avoiding wrongs like killing, stealing } (Sīla) } ethics

5.            Right Livelihood } not engaging in an occupation that causes } harm to others } (Sīla) } ethics

6.            Right Effort } gaining control of one’s thoughts and cultivating positive states of mind

} Meditation

Right Mindfulness } (Samādhi) cultivating constant awareness } 3 Meditation

7.            Right Meditation } 3 Meditation

Questions:

1.    What is Buddhagosha’s ‘medical analogy’ that Keown quotes?

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2.    Explain Keown’s point ‘the first noble truth was the hardest to grasp’.

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3.    Explain what Keown says are the 3 types of tanhā.

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4.    According to Keown what does the a cock, a pig and a snake chasing each other with their tails in each other’s mouths, represent?

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5.    Explain what Keown says about Nirvanna and what happened to the Buddha after death?

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Modern Theravada thinkers on the 4N Truths-

Walpola Rahula -

According to Carol Anderson, the four truths have "a singular position within the Theravada canon and tradition." The Theravada tradition regards insight in the four truths as liberating in itself. As Walpola Rahula states, "when the Truth is seen, all the forces which feverishly produce the continuity of samsara in illusion become calm and incapable of producing any more karma-formations [...] he is free from [...] the 'thirst' for becoming." his liberation can be attained in one single moment, when the four truths are understood together. Within the Theravada tradition, great emphasis is placed upon reading and contemplating The Discourse That Sets Turning the Wheel of Truth, and other suttas, as a means to study the four noble truths and put them into practice.

Within the Theravada-tradition, three different stances on nirvana and the question what happens with the Arhat after death can be found.  Nirvana refers to the cessation of the defilements and the resulting peace of mind and happiness (khlesa-nirvana); to the final dissolution of the five skandhas at the time of death (skandha-nirvana or parinirvana); and to a transcendental reality which is "known at the moment of awakening".  According to Gethin, "modern Buddhist usage tends to restrict 'nirvāṇa' to the awakening experience and reserve 'parinirvāṇa' for the death experience.  According to Walpola Rahula, the cessation of dukkha is nirvana, the summum bonum of Buddhism, and is attained in this life, not when one dies.  Most (lay) Theravada Buddhists do not aspire for nirvana and total extinction, but for a pleasurable rebirth in heaven but ‘this presents a "serious conflict" since the Buddhist texts and teaching "describe life as suffering and hold up nirvana as the summum bonum.  In response to this deviation, "monks and others emphasize that the hope for nirvana is the only legitimate action for Buddhist action."

Questions:

1.    What does Rahula mean ‘all the forces which feverishly produce the continuity of samsara in illusion become calm’?

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2.    What does Rahula mean by saysing they are the summum bonum of Buddhism.

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B Bodhi on the Four Noble Truths

Bhikkhu Bodhi explains from his Theravada perspective the significance of the four noble truths in an essay called ‘The Nobility of the Truths’ by

The most common and widely known formulation of the Buddha's teaching is that which the Buddha himself announced in the First Sermon at Benares, the formula of the Four Noble Truths. The Buddha declares that these truths convey in a nutshell all the essential information that we need to set out on the path to liberation. He says that just as the elephant's footprint, by reason of its great size, contains the footprints of all other animals, so the Four Noble Truths, by reason of their comprehensiveness, contain within themselves all wholesome and beneficial teachings. However, while many expositors of Buddhism have devoted attention to explaining the actual content of the four truths, only rarely is any consideration given to the reason why they are designated noble truths. Yet it is just this descriptive word "noble" that reveals to us why the Buddha chose to cast his teaching into this specific format, and it is this same term that allows us to experience, even from afar, the unique flavor that pervades the entire doctrine and discipline of the Enlightened One.

The word "noble," or ariya, is used by the Buddha to designate a particular type of person, the type of person which it is the aim of his teaching to create. In the discourses the Buddha classifies human beings into two broad categories. On one side there are the puthujjanas, the worldlings, those belonging to the multitude, whose eyes are still covered with the dust of defilements and delusion. On the other side there are the ariyans, the noble ones, the spiritual elite, who obtain this status not from birth, social station or ecclesiastical authority but from their inward nobility of character.

These two general types are not separated from each other by an impassable chasm, each confined to a tightly sealed compartment. A series of gradations can be discerned rising up from the darkest level of the blind worldling trapped in the dungeon of egotism and self-assertion, through the stage of the virtuous worldling in whom the seeds of wisdom are beginning to sprout, and further through the intermediate stages of noble disciples to the perfected individual at the apex of the entire scale of human development. This is the arahant, the liberated one, who has absorbed the purifying vision of truth so deeply that all his defilements have been extinguished, and with them, all liability to suffering.

While the path from bondage to deliverance, from worldliness to spiritual nobility, is a graded path involving gradual practice and gradual progress, it is not a uniform continuum. Progress occurs in discrete steps, and at a certain point — the point separating the status of a worldling from that of a noble one — a break is reached which must be crossed, not by simply taking another step forward, but by making a leap, by jumping across from the near side to the further shore. This decisive event in the inner development of the practitioner, this radical leap that propels the disciple from the domain and lineage of the worldling to the domain and lineage of the noble ones, occurs precisely through the penetration of the Four Noble Truths. This discloses to us the critical reason why the four truths revealed by the Buddha are called noble truths. They are noble truths because when we have penetrated them through to the core, when we have grasped their real import and implications, we cast off the status of the worldling and acquire the status of a noble one, drawn out from the faceless crowd into the community of the Blessed One's disciples united by a unique and unshakable vision.

Prior to the penetration of the truths, however well endowed we may be with spiritual virtues, we are not yet on secure ground. We are not immune from regression, not yet assured of deliverance, not invincible in our striving on the path. The virtues of a worldling are tenuous virtues. They may wax or they may wane, they may flourish or decline, and in correspondence with their degree of strength we may rise or fall in our movement through the cycle of becoming. When our virtues are replete we may rise upward and dwell in bliss among the gods; when our virtues decline or our merit is exhausted we may sink again to miserable depths.

But with the penetration of the truths we leap across the gulf that separates us from the ranks of the noble ones. The eye of Dhamma has been opened, the vision of truth stands revealed, and though the decisive victory has not yet been won, the path to the final goal lies at our feet and the supreme security from bondage hovers on the horizon. One who has comprehended the truths has changed lineage, crossed over from the domain of the worldlings to the domain of the noble ones. Such a disciple is incapable of regression to the ranks of the worldling, incapable of losing the vision of truth that has flashed before his inner eye. Progress toward the final goal, the complete eradication of ignorance and craving, may be slow or rapid; it may occur easily or result from an uphill battle. But however long it may take, with whatever degree of facility one may advance, one thing is certain: such a disciple who has seen with immaculate clarity the Four Noble Truths can never slide backward, can never lose the status of a noble one, and is bound to reach the final fruit of arahantship in a maximum of seven lives.

The reason why the penetration of the Four Noble Truths can confer this immutable nobility of spirit is implied by the four tasks the noble truths impose on us. By taking these tasks as our challenge in life — our challenge as followers of the Enlightened One — from whatever station of development we find ourselves beginning at, we can gradually advance toward the infallible penetration of the noble ones.

The first noble truth, the truth of suffering, is to be fully understood: the task it assigns us is that of full understanding. A hallmark of the noble ones is that they do not flow along thoughtlessly with the stream of life, but endeavor to comprehend existence from within, as honestly and thoroughly as possible. For us, too, it is necessary to reflect upon the nature of our life. We must attempt to fathom the deep significance of an existence bounded on one side by birth and on the other by death, and subject in between to all the types of suffering detailed by the Buddha in his discourses.

The second noble truth, of the origin or cause of suffering, implies the task of abandonment. A noble one is such because he has initiated the process of eliminating the defilements at the root of suffering, and we too, if we aspire to reach the plane of the noble ones, must be prepared to withstand the seductive lure of the defilements. While the eradication of craving can come only with the supramundane realizations, even in the mundane course of our daily life we can learn to restrain the coarser manifestation of defilements, and by keen self-observation can gradually loosen their grip upon our hearts.

The third noble truth, the cessation of suffering, implies the task of realization. Although Nibbana, the extinction of suffering, can only be personally realized by the noble ones, the confidence we place in the Dhamma as our guideline to life shows us what we should select as our final aspiration, as our ultimate ground of value. Once we have grasped the fact that all conditioned things in the world, being impermanent and insubstantial, can never give us total satisfaction, we can then lift our aim to the unconditioned element, Nibbana the Deathless, and make that aspiration the pole around which we order our everyday choices and concerns.

Finally, the fourth noble truth, the Noble Eightfold Path, assigns us the task of development. The noble ones have reached their status by developing the eightfold path, and while only the noble ones are assured of never deviating from the path, the Buddha's teaching gives us the meticulous instructions that we need to tread the path culminating in the plane of the noble ones. This is the path that gives birth to vision, that gives birth to knowledge, that leads to higher comprehension, enlightenment and Nibbana, the crowning attainment of nobility.

Questions:

1.    Explain what Bodhi says about the four noble truths being designated as noble truths?

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2.    Explain the Bodhi says about those for who ‘the eye of Dhamma has been opened’.

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3.    Explain what Bodhi says is the hallmark of the noble ones linked with the first Noble Truth.

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4.    According to what Bodhi what will ‘supramundane realizations’ bring in regard to the second noble truth?

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5.    Explain what Bodhi means about the third Noble truth that it ‘can only be personally realized’?

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6.    Explain the indicative progression ‘the meticulous instructions’ of forth Noble truth that Bodhi says begin as ‘the path that gives birth to vision’?

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Mahayana thinkers on the Four Noble Truths.

The four truths are less prominent in the Mahayana traditions, which emphasize insight into Śūnyatā and the Bodhisattva path as a central elements in their teachings. Paul Williams says ‘If the sutras in general are studied at all, it is through various Mahayana commentaries’. 

The Mahayana Bodhisattva ideal created tensions in the explanation of the four truths. In the Mahayana view, a fully enlightened Buddha does not leave samsara, but remains in the world out of compassion for all sentient beings. The four truths, which aim at ending samsara, do not provide a doctrinal basis for this view, and had to be reinterpreted. In the old view, klesas and karma are the cause of prolonged existence. According to Makransky, "[t]o remove those causes was, at physical death, to extinguish one's conditioned existence, hence to end forever one's participation in the world (Third Truth)."   The question of how a liberated being can still be "pervasively operative in this world" has been "a seminal source of ongoing doctrinal tension over Buddhahood throughout the history of the Mahayana in India and Tibet."

The four Noble truth in Tibetan thought have three levels of motivation for Buddhist practitioners. At the beginning level of motivation, one strives toward a better life in samsara. At the intermediate level, one strives to a liberation from existence in samsara and the end of all suffering. At the highest level of motivation, one strives after the liberation of all living beings.  They are to be meditated upon as a means of practice for the intermediate level, the four noble truths are studied as part of the Bodhisattva path. They form part of the lower Hinayana teachings. The truth of the path (the fourth truth) is traditionally presented according to a progressive formula of five paths, rather than as the eightfold path presented in Theravada. 

Thus while adherence to the four Noble truths is given a question remains if this is wholehearted and genuine or what is called ‘skilful-means’ or Upyaya.  Consider the following quote - 

“The Four Noble Truths are the very foundation of the Buddhist teaching, and that is why they are so important. In fact, if you don't understand the Four Noble Truths, and if you have not experienced the truth of this teaching personally, it is impossible to practise Buddha Dharma.”

The Dalai Lama, The Four Noble Truths

Questions:

1.    Explain why the four truths are less prominent in the Mahayana traditions,?

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2.    Explain what has created tensions in the explanation of the four truths in mahayana thought.

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3.    Explain what according to Makransky, is an area of reflection in Mahayana Buddhist thought today?

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4.    Explain Tibetan thought on the three levels of motivation?

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5.    Explain in what way does the Mahayana want to progress beyond the four noble truths and eightfold path?

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6.    Consider the quote by the Dalai Lama how might it be understood as just skilful means?

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Unit 1.2 The Three Marks of Existence-

An essential part of the Buddha’s Dhamma is the three lakshanas, or Three Marks of Existence. ‘Lakshanas’ can be translated as ‘marks’ or ‘signs’. These are three fundamental marks of reality, sometimes also called the Three Universal Truths.  Buddhists believe that there are three characteristics that are common across everything in life. These are known as the Three Marks of Existence . The Three Marks of Existence are important as they can help Buddhists to achieve nibbana and end suffering. They are called dukkha, anatta and anicca.

Dukkha

Dukkha is another fundamental mark of existence. It refers to the fact that people suffer. Life is unsatisfactory, bringing pain, fear and longing. The impermanence of existence (anicca) means that pleasant experiences do not last. Human desires and goals are always shifting (anatta), and life can seem meaningless. Dukkha means the ‘unsatisfactoriness’ of existence.

Dukkha is also the first of the four noble truths. It is the Buddhist description of the human condition, or to put it another way. it is the diagnosis of the 'illness' from which we all suffer It is what is wrong. Buddhists see this analysis as neither pessimistic nor optimistic. It is simply realistic.  The recognition that all life is dukkha, is the first step in the way to overcoming it.  The positive thrust of Buddhism comes from the subsequent three of the four noble truths. Not only is the problem diagnosed, but a cause is identified, and a cure is at hand. All conditioned things have a cause, and dukkha is caused by tanha, which literally translates as thirst though it is more usually explained with terms such as 'attachment' or 'craving'. It is easy to acquire a superficial understanding of the relationship between tanha and dukkha, but according to Buddhists, it is the wonk of possibly many lifetimes to understand it fully. An easy example is that of greed for what money can buy. It is a cliche that money cannot buy happiness, and rich people (especially if they are greedy) can be amongst the most miserable. Buddhists would say it is our greed that creates our dissatisfaction. We want ever more, bigger and better; and suffer because of our lack. We are never satisfied with what we have and constantly crave for more. ThiS state is superbly depicted by the example of the hungry ghost (preta), in the diagram of the Wheel of Life (see Unit 1.2). The large belly indicates their overwhelming appetites, their small mouths and necks, their inability to ever satisfy themselves. They are plagued by raging thirst, but can drink only from flaming and infested waters.

The Buddha’s teaching of dukkha in detail

What is dukkha?

The term ‘dukkha’ (duḥkha in Sanskrit) literally means 'what is difficult to endure’. It is often translated as ‘suffering’, ‘dissatisfaction’ or ‘stress’. It is the foundation of Buddhist teachings, one of the tilakkhanas (trilaksanas in Sanskrit), and the first of the First Noble Truth.

The tilakkhaṇas, the three marks of existence, are the three characteristics of all existence. They are dukkha (suffering), anicca (impermanence) and anattā (‘not-self). They are what Gotama Buddha discovered when he saw the Four Sights which, although initially the cause of his distress, eventually led him to the understanding he needed to achieve enlightenment. They are part of his first sermon, given 7 weeks after his enlightenment, as recorded in the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta, meaning ‘first turning of the wheel of the Dhamma’.

“sabbe saṅkhārā aniccā,

sabbe saṅkhārā dukkhā,

sabbe dhammā anattā”

“all conditioned things are impermanent,

all conditioned things are unsatisfactory,

all conditioned or unconditioned things are not self”

Dhammapada 277-279

The tilakkhaṇas are interconnected. Dukkhā is what arises when a person is unaware that things are impermanent and becomes attached to them, wanting them to remain unchanged. This also applies to living beings; a person is subject to impermanence as there is no soul or permanent part of us and attachment to ego leads to dukkha.

Dukkha is also the First Noble Truth. It is the acceptance of the existence of dukkha that sets up person on the path to try to overcome it. In his first sermon to the ascetics, Gotama Buddha said:

‘Suffering, as a noble truth, is this: Birth is suffering, ageing is suffering, sickness is suffering,

death is suffering, sorrow and lamentation, pain, grief and despair are suffering; association with the loathed is suffering, dissociation from the loved is suffering, not to get what one wants is suffering – in short, suffering is the five categories of clinging objects.’ Samyutta Nikaya 5:421-423

The Buddha identified 7 well-known stages of dukkha which are obvious in our lives. The first 4 are linked to the 4 stages of human development:

1. birth

2. old age

3. sickness

4. death.

The next 3 are:

5. sorrow

6. not getting what you desire

7. contact with unpleasant things.

He also identified 4 concealed states of dukkha. These are:

1. pleasure that causes pain to others

2. pleasure that brings fear of losing it

3. pleasure that makes us crave more of it

4. the impermanence of pleasure.

Three types of dukkha

Buddhism identifies 3 basic patterns of suffering in our lives:

1. Dukkha-dukkhatā refers to bodily and mental pain, e.g. old age, illness, injury, grief the distress of not getting

what we want. The common quality of these experiences is that they are painful.

2. Viparinama- dukkhatā refers to suffering resulting from change, e.g. the end of a holiday, marriage break-ups and divorce, bereavement, moving to a new house or changing schools. Sometimes it is we who change, rather than our circumstances, e.g. getting bored with an activity we once loved, our fluctuating feelings about other people. These all bring a lack of contentment.

3. Sankhāra- dukkhatā refers to suffering due to conditioned existence. It is a general dissatisfaction with life itself rather than with a specific problem. e.g. having everything you need but still having a sense that not all is well. It is not a dramatic form of suffering but a more fundamental and subtle background feeling of unease.

Is Buddhism pessimistic?

The focus on dukkha might, at first glance, seem pessimistic. Emphasizing the unpleasant aspects of life and the interconnectedness of pleasure and pain can make life seem hopeless and have a negative impact on our mental state. However, the aim of Buddhism is not to focus on the existence of dukkha, but on accepting its existence as the starting point for identifying its causes so that they can be eliminated. Whatever pains a person cannot be cured unless it is identified. Ignoring the problem will only make it worse.

Buddhism is often misunderstood as a religion that sees all life as suffering, but it acknowledges that there are both material and spiritual forms of happiness. However, attachment to this happiness in a world of change leads to dukkha. Buddhism teaches that transcending the stress of life requires a fully realistic assessment of the pervasive presence of dukkha. Only by seeing things as they really are can allow people to achieve happiness in life: the calm and joy of life as it is, without attachment. Ultimately the Buddhist path leads enlightenment, a state that is not conditioned and therefore free from dukkha and the causes of dukkha.

Questions:

1. What does Bentham believe about human nature?

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2. Explain Bentham’s idea of ‘utility’.

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3. Explain Bentham’s idea of the hedonic calculus.

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4. Which acrostic can help you to remember the 7 factors that should be taken into consideration when making a judgement using the hedonic calculus?

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5. What is a common mistake for people who study utilitarianism?

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Anicca

Anicca

Anicca means that nothing in the universe is fixed – nothing stays the same and everything will change. Some things change quickly, such as the waves in the sea. Some things change so slowly we do not recognise it, such as coastal erosion. Anicca means ‘impermanence’. This fundamental mark of existence reminds Buddhists that nothing is fixed or stable.

What is anicca?

The term anicca means ‘impermanence’. Everything in existence is impermanent: inanimate objects (e.g. books,

your phone), animate objects (e.g. human beings, animals) and abstracts of the mind (e.g. thoughts and ideas).

The moment something comes into existence, its impermanence is assured. This is because these objects are

composed of many parts, and all compound things must have a beginning, middle and end, and at some point,

these factors will naturally separate and disperse and the compound thing will cease to exist.

Change happens on different levels. The gross level of change is that kind of change that is obvious to us. It affects

the phenomena we can observe ourselves, such as changes in the weather and the seasons, the aging of people

around us, the decay of physical objects. Momentary change is the change that occurs on a more subtle level as we

might not be able to see it for ourselves. For example, when we look through a microscope, we can see that the

atoms that make up my desk are in perpetual motion and are continually changing their configuration.

Nevertheless, at a gross level, my desk appears unchanged for the period of time before decay sets in. It is as a

result of this momentary change that, eventually, things change visibly. For example, we do not suddenly grow old

on a certain day; it is a gradual process that becomes visible as a result of the accumulation of millions of smaller

changes.

Momentary change can account for our perception of continuity.

Momentary change happens as a continuum of linked moments where each

moment is so short that we don’t notice it and as one moment produces the

next (dependent arising), the continuum of moments happens in an orderly

fashion, giving us the impression that life is continuous. However, life is

more like the frames of a film going through a projector a just the right

speed to give us the illusion of a continuous sequence but when we check

the film reel, we see that each frame is separate.

A true understanding of anicca can be achieved only from direct meditative insight. It is not something to believe

or understand on an intellectual level, it is to be experienced through insight meditation.

Why is anicca important?

Gotama Buddha taught the concept of anicca as one of the ti-lakhanas (alongside dukkha and anattā) in his first

sermon after his enlightenment. They are recorded Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta, meaning ‘first turning of the

wheel of the Dhamma’.

Although we all know that things change, often we act as if there are some things in life that are permanent, e.g.

our love for another person, a cherished possession, or concepts such as peace and justice. When we forget about

or ignore the impermanence things, we become attached and want those things to remain unchanged. This causes

AQA Religious Studies (7062) Buddhism - from the AQA specification:

Sources of wisdom and authority - Ultimate reality

• The meaning and importance of the concept of Anicca.

• the development of that idea in the Mahayana doctrine of emptiness.

dukkha to arise. Understanding the true nature of existence, i.e. understanding the ti-lakhanas and their

interconnectedness, is necessary to achieve enlightenment. Nibbāna is the only thing not subject to anicca; it is

uncaused, unconditioned and always the same because it lies beyond existence and is not affected by it. In fact, it is

not really ‘a thing’ at all.

The development of the concept of anicca in the Mahāyāna concept of emptiness / śūnyatā

The Mahāyāna doctrine of ‘emptiness’ or ‘śūnyatā’ develops the idea of anattā by claiming that all things are empty

of intrinsic existence and inherent nature. In the 1st century CE, the Indian scholar Nāgārjuna founded the

Mādhyamaka philosophy. Mādhyamaka literally means ‘the middle way’ and refers to the middle way between the

extreme views of believing that things really exist and believing that nothing exists at all. The ultimate truth of

Mādhyamaka is emptiness (śūnyatā’) and interdependence (pratītyasamutpāda).

Thich Nhat Hanh gives the example of a flower – it is full of everything cosmos and only empty of one thing:

separate existence. The flower has no ‘self-nature’ and can only ‘inter-be’ as it is made up of only non-flower

elements. If you remove the non-flower elements, there is not flower.

Mādhyamaka suggests two kinds of truth:

1. Conventional / relative truth is the way we see the world based on empirical evidence. We see things as

unchanging, separate entities and this allows us to name them and have a practical understanding of them,

e.g. there are flowers in our garden.

2. Ultimate truth is the enlightened view of how things truly are which tells us that there is no separate existence;

everything is empty of independent existence and interdependent with everything else, e.g. the flower exists of

non-flower elements.

Anatta

As everything in the universe changes, so too do human beings. People might believe that our personalities are fixed but this is a mistake. Our feelings, beliefs and characters, even our souls, change. Sometimes they change quickly and sometimes they change slowly, but they are not fixed. Anatta means ‘no self’.

Assessment Questions (Choose one):

1. Evaluate the view that “A utilitarian approach is the best way to make moral decisions.”. (30 marks)

2. Evaluate the view that “The pursuit of the greatest happiness should govern moral laws ”. (30 marks)

3. Evaluate the view that “The hedonic calculus provides an easy way of measuring pleasure and pain.”. (30 marks)

Exam Technique:

S: Support: Write a supporting argument, in detail, using technical terms and demonstrating thorough and accurate knowledge of the topic.

A: Analysis: Explain why your supporting argument could be flawed

N: Negate: Write an opposing argument, in detail, using technical terms and demonstrating thorough and accurate knowledge of the topic. You should also explain why your opposing argument could be flawed.

E: Evaluate: Explain your own judgement based on the arguments you have given to support or negate the quote. Come to a clear, justified, logical conclusion.

Remember, you are marked on two assessment objectives:

AO1: Select and demonstrate clearly relevant knowledge and understanding through the use of evidence, examples and correct language and terminology appropriate to the course of study.

AO2: Sustain a critical line of argument and justify a point of view