Unit 1.2 The three marks and the Five khandas

A Level Religious Studies

Buddhist Teachings Unit 1.2

The Three marks of Existence,

The Five Skandhas

Introduction

The Buddha's teachings arose from his own observations and meditations, and he urged us all to test and discover them for ourselves. Among his most fundamental teachings is that of the 'three marks of existence' or the 'three dharma seals.' The Buddha observed that there are three characteristics of all worldly phenomena: anicca, or impermanence, dukkha, or suffering, and anatta, or no-self. Every aspect of our existence, from the physical to the psychological to the spiritual, shares these three characteristics. Developing a deep understanding of these is the foundation for wisdom on the Buddhist path. Moreover the historical Buddha is said to have spoke often of the Five Skandhas, also called the Five Aggregates or the Five Heaps. The skandhas, very roughly, might be thought of as components that come together to make an individual. Everything that we think of as "I" is a function of the skandhas. Put another way, we might think of an individual as a process of the skand

What you need to know:

Topic

Content

Key Knowledge

Religious Beliefs values and Teachings 1.2

· The three marks

Ø Dukkha- key teachings on suffering

Ø Definitions of the three types with examples.

Ø Annica -

Ø Definitions of Subtle and Gross Annica

Ø Anatta – the rejection of the idea of the self and the non-existence of God.

· The three marks in Theravada and Mahayana

Ø Theravada ideas in Buddhagosha’s path of purification.

Ø Mahyana contrasting ideas of – Emptyness, Buddhature, and interdepednence in Ripoches ‘Primodial Mind and Everday awareness.

· The Five khandas

Ø The Five khandas In Theravada

Ø Death and the afterlife In Theravada

You need to understand the issues raised by Buddhist teachings, including:

· How the 3 marks of existence interrelate in Buddhist teaching with each other and with other teaching such as the four Noble truths.

· The significance of each of the three marks of existence and their place in Buddhist teaching as a whole. E.g the importance of this in understanding the nature of reality, the ultimate reality, and the meaning and purpose of life.

· The concept of rebirth, Nibbana, karma and the search for Enlightenment. The importance of this in understanding the nature of reality, the ultimate reality, and the meaning and purpose of life.

· The ideas Buddhaghosa in the Visuddhimagga and T W Rinpoche..

Key Words

Lakshanas – The marks of existence.

Ti-Lakshanas – The three marks of existence.

Annica– The first mark, meaning impermanence

Dukkha – The second mark meaning suffering or better stress / disasatisfaction.

Anatta – The third mark meaning no-self or soul.

Unit 1.2 The Three Marks of Existence-

An essential part of the Buddha’s Dhamma is the three lakshanas, or Three Marks of Existence. ‘Lakshanas’ can be translated as ‘marks’ or ‘signs’. These are three fundamental marks of reality, sometimes also called the Three Universal Truths. Buddhists believe that there are three characteristics that are common across everything in life. These are known as the Three Marks of Existence . The Three Marks of Existence are important as they can help Buddhists to achieve nibbana and end suffering. They are called dukkha, anatta and anicca. Buddhists believe they are interlinked in a variety of ways for example because suffering or dissatisfaction / stress is linked t our ignorance of change / annica, or because Annica applies to everything Conditioned and that includes us meaning we have nothing permeant like a soul i.e. Anatta.

The Three Marks of Existence Introduction

The teaching of the three characteristics or marks of existence (lakshanas) is a teaching which is accepted by all Buddhist schools. It is an analysis of the First Noble Truth, the doctrine of dukkha (suffering). The three characteristics simply provide a more detailed explanation of what is meant by dukkha, and in what sense our unenlightened experience of the world is one of suffering, frustration, or unsatisfactoriness.

The three characteristics are as follows:

Impermanence (anicca)

Insubstantiality or “no-self / no soul” (anatta)

Suffering (dukkha)

They are all interlinked and interdependent. Samsaric existence is frustrating because we experience not only suffering, but pleasures which are impermanent and insubstantial. We, the experiencers of the pleasures, are also ourselves impermanent and insubstantial. It is our continual failure to take this into account which makes us unenlightened.

Recognition of the three characteristics, like awareness of the rest of the Four Noble Truths, is part of wisdom. To gain wisdom we have to fully realise the reality of these characteristics in the whole of our experience, not just abstractly or intellectually accept them. The three marks of existence are also interrelated to each other because you need one to have a greater understanding of the other one. Once you've accepted the fact that all things are impermanent (Annica) you will find that you will suffer less (Dukkha). When you understand the concept of no-self (Anatta) it will help you convince the fact that all things are impermanent because even our physical body and what we consider our 'soul' that should be permanent is considered impermanent under Buddhist beliefs. The main goal for Buddhists is to reach Nirvana, here there are no suffering and it is permanent

Questions:

1. Briefly explain how the links between dukkha, anicca and anatta are related?

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2. Explain how realising the reality of the Marks of can aid wisdom.

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Dukkha

Dukkha is another fundamental mark of existence. It refers to the fact that people suffer. Life is unsatisfactory, bringing pain, fear and longing. The impermanence of existence (anicca) means that pleasant experiences do not last. Human desires and goals are always shifting (anatta), and life can seem meaningless. Dukkha means the ‘unsatisfactoriness’ of existence.

Introduction to Dukkha

Dukkha is also the first of the four noble truths. It is the Buddhist description of the human condition, or to put it another way. it is the diagnosis of the 'illness' from which we all suffer It is what is wrong. Buddhists see this analysis as neither pessimistic nor optimistic. It is simply realistic.

The recognition that all life is dukkha, is the first step in the way to overcoming it. The positive thrust of Buddhism comes from the subsequent three of the four noble truths. Not only is the problem diagnosed, but a cause is identified, and a cure is at hand. All conditioned things have a cause, and dukkha is caused by tanha, which literally translates as thirst though it is more usually explained with terms such as 'attachment' or 'craving'. It is easy to acquire a superficial understanding of the relationship between tanha and dukkha, but according to Buddhists, it is the wonk of possibly many lifetimes to understand it fully.

An Example of Dukkha

An easy example is that of greed for what money can buy. It is a cliche that money cannot buy happiness, and rich people (especially if they are greedy) can be amongst the most miserable. Buddhists would say it is our greed that creates our dissatisfaction. We want ever more, bigger and better; and suffer because of our lack. We are never satisfied with what we have and constantly crave for more. This state is superbly depicted by the example of the hungry ghost (preta), in the diagram of the Wheel of Life (see Unit 1.2). The large belly indicates their overwhelming appetites, their small mouths and necks, their inability to ever satisfy themselves. They are plagued by raging thirst, but can drink only from flaming and infested waters.

What is dukkha? - The Buddha’s teaching of dukkha in detail

The term ‘dukkha’ (duḥkha in Sanskrit) literally means 'what is difficult to endure’. It is often translated as ‘suffering’, ‘dissatisfaction’ or ‘stress’. It is the foundation of Buddhist teachings, one of the tilakkhanas (trilaksanas in Sanskrit), and the first of the First Noble Truth.

The tilakkhaṇas, the three marks of existence, are the three characteristics of all existence. They are dukkha (suffering), anicca (impermanence) and anattā (‘not-self). They are what Gotama Buddha discovered when he saw the Four Sights which, although initially the cause of his distress, eventually led him to the understanding he needed to achieve enlightenment. They are part of his first sermon, given 7 weeks after his enlightenment, as recorded in the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta, meaning ‘first turning of the wheel of the Dhamma’.

“sabbe saṅkhārā aniccā,

sabbe saṅkhārā dukkhā,

sabbe dhammā anattā”

“all conditioned things are impermanent,

all conditioned things are unsatisfactory,

all conditioned or unconditioned things are not self”

Dhammapada 277-279

The ti-lakkhanas are interconnected. Dukkhā is what arises when a person is unaware that things are impermanent and becomes attached to them, wanting them to remain unchanged. This also applies to living beings; a person is subject to impermanence as there is no soul or permanent part of us and attachment to ego leads to dukkha.

How are the Four Noble Truths and three Universal truths linked?

Dukkha is also the First Noble Truth. It is the acceptance of the existence of dukkha that sets up person on the path to try to overcome it. In his first sermon to the ascetics, Gotama Buddha said:

‘Suffering, as a noble truth, is this: Birth is suffering, ageing is suffering, sickness is suffering, death is suffering, sorrow and lamentation, pain, grief and despair are suffering; association with the loathed is suffering, dissociation from the loved is suffering, not to get what one wants is suffering – in short, suffering is the five categories of clinging objects.’ Samyutta Nikaya 5:421-423

The Buddha identified 7 well-known stages of dukkha which are obvious in our lives. The first 4 are linked to the 4 stages of human development:

1. birth

2. old age

3. sickness

4. death.

The next 3 are:

5. sorrow

6. not getting what you desire

7. contact with unpleasant things.

He also identified 4 concealed states of dukkha. These are:

1. pleasure that causes pain to others

2. pleasure that brings fear of losing it

3. pleasure that makes us crave more of it

4. the impermanence of pleasure.

What are the three types of dukkha

Buddhism identifies 3 basic patterns of suffering in our lives:

1 Dukkha-dukkhatā

refers to bodily and mental pain, e.g. old age, illness, injury, grief the distress of not getting what we want. The common quality of these experiences is that they are painful.

2 Viparinama- dukkhatā

refers to suffering resulting from change, e.g. the end of a holiday, marriage break-ups and divorce, bereavement, moving to a new house or changing schools. Sometimes it is we who change, rather than our circumstances, e.g. getting bored with an activity we once loved, our fluctuating feelings about other people. These all bring a lack of contentment.

3 Sankhāra- dukkhatā

refers to suffering due to conditioned existence. It is a general dissatisfaction with life itself rather than with a specific problem. e.g. having everything you need but still having a sense that not all is well. It is not a dramatic form of suffering but a more fundamental and subtle background feeling of unease.

Why is Dukkha Important?

One could argue that Dukkha is a more important mark of existence. That there is always a general discomfort or dissatisfaction in life, was the question problem or experience that motivated the Buddha to renounce if life of luxury and seek answers. Dukkha is important to Buddhism as the fundamental principle of Buddhism is to escape suffering through enlightenment, but such enlightenment requires knowledge that sufferinf is caused by change or annica represents and that Dukkha however is more explicit in the suffering of man when he realised there is no soul or permanent self or Atman. Annata addresses the issue of identity of the person and the illusion of self as the main barrier to enlightenment.

Key Issues: Is Buddhism pessimistic?

The focus on dukkha might, at first glance, seem pessimistic. Emphasizing the unpleasant aspects of life and the interconnectedness of pleasure and pain can make life seem hopeless and have a negative impact on our mental state. However, the aim of Buddhism is not to focus on the existence of dukkha, but on accepting its existence as the starting point for identifying its causes so that they can be eliminated. Whatever pains a person cannot be cured unless it is identified. Ignoring the problem will only make it worse.

Buddhism is often misunderstood as a religion that sees all life as suffering, but it acknowledges that there are both material and spiritual forms of happiness. However, attachment to this happiness in a world of change leads to dukkha. Buddhism teaches that transcending the stress of life requires a fully realistic assessment of the pervasive presence of dukkha. Only by seeing things as they really are can allow people to achieve happiness in life: the calm and joy of life as it is, without attachment. Ultimately the Buddhist path leads enlightenment, a state that is not conditioned and therefore free from dukkha and the causes of dukkha.

How is Dukkha linked with other ti-lakshanas or three marks of existence Annica and Anatta?

Dukkha, Suffering - Although dukkha is usually translated as 'suffering' this is not quite right. Other terms sometimes used are 'stress' or 'unsatisfactoriness'. But dukkha does not just refer to painful and difficult experiences, it refers to the fact that due to anicca, no single attainment, possession, or life situation can ultimately bring us lasting happiness. We might experience periods of joy based on these things, but because that joy is dependent on external phenomenon, it will eventually end. Our mind has a natural grasping quality - it is always moving on to the next object of attachment, the next desire. When it is not doing this, it is consumed with keeping away that which we don't want, or complaining about it. To attain true lasting happiness, happiness not dependent on our moment-to-moment circumstances, we must see through this 'monkey mind'. We must break the cycle of dukkha. A profound understanding of dukkha is at the heart of the Buddha's teachings on the Four Noble Truths, the foundation teaching of Buddhism.

What do the Scholars say about Dukkha?

The Named Scholars

1 Buddhaghosa

A 5th-century Indian Theravada Buddhist commentator, translator and philosopher. ... He is generally recognized by both Western scholars and Theravadins as the most important philosopher and commentator of the Theravada, but is also criticised for his departures from the canonical texts. He argued that the Buddha explained that happiness can happen in this lifetime (such as when he was in his father’s palace) but the importance of his teachings was that is no happiness is ever permanent, all happiness is ‘tainted’ He said…

"the end of craving is the end of sorrow"

2 T W Rinpoche?

Perhaps after the Dali Lama today the most important Tibetan and thus Mahayana spokesperson and teacher. His approach to Dukkha is to set it in the context of the Mahayana belief in ‘Emptiness’ and the belief that the source of suffering is ‘dualistic thinking’ rather than craving i.e. believing the mind is seperate to the body, and that the object is separate to the subject. He believes we suffer because the ‘everyday awareness’ that clouds the mind, covers the diamond that is the real / true self in ‘mud’. His teaching and Mahayana teaching in general will take time to learn. He says about the about Dukkha in his comments on the four noble truths-

“the first noble truth includes awareness of all the ramifications of suffering because it encompasses the very nature and essence of suffering. This includes knowledge of the subtle and the obvious aspects of suffering …that …the ordinary reality that we see is actually a delusion. Only with great spiritual attainment can we then see through this delusion and see "things as they really are" (Tib. nga lu)..” http://www.rinpoche.com/fornob.html also

"abandoning the afflictions coincides with the abandonment of... self"

Other Key Named Scholars

Many suggest it is difficult to translate, most often translated as ‘suffering’

Some scholars see this translation as misleading – Walpola Rahula says that this translation is:

“highly unsatisfactory and misleading. It is because of this limited, free and easy translation, and its superficial interpretation, that many people have misled into regarding Buddhism as pessimistic”

Another scholar, John Snelling says:

“At one extreme it takes in the most dire forms of mental and physical pain: the agonies of cancer, for instance, and the anguish of someone who falls prey to total despair. It covers our everyday aches and pains, our petty dislikes and frustrations too; and it extends to very subtle feelings of malaise”

(Remember you can qet to grips with quotes by using Mr K’s Quizlet- such search PeterKernaghan on Quizlet and ask to join the Alevel Classes.)

Questions:

1. What is Dukkha?

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2. Explain what the Dhammapada says about Dukkha.

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3. Explain Bentham’s idea of the hedonic calculus.

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4. Which acrostic can help you to remember the 7 factors that should be taken into consideration when making a judgement using the hedonic calculus?

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5. How is Annata linked with other ti-lakshanas or three marks of existence?

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Anicca

Anicca means that nothing in the universe is fixed – nothing stays the same and everything will change. Some things change quickly, such as the waves in the sea. Some things change so slowly we do not recognise it, such as coastal erosion. Anicca means ‘impermanence’. This fundamental mark of existence reminds Buddhists that nothing is fixed or stable.

What are the two Types of Annica

Change happens on different levels.

The gross level of change

This type of Anncia is that kind of change that is obvious to us. It affects the phenomena we can observe ourselves, such as changes in the weather and the seasons, the aging of people around us, the decay of physical objects. Momentary change is the change that occurs on a more subtle level as we might not be able to see it for ourselves. For example, when we look through a microscope, we can see that the atoms that make up my desk are in perpetual motion and are continually changing their configuration. Nevertheless, at a gross level, my desk appears unchanged for the period of time before decay sets in. It is as a result of this momentary change that, eventually, things change visibly. For example, we do not suddenly grow old on a certain day; it is a gradual process that becomes visible as a result of the accumulation of millions of smaller changes.

Momentary change

This type of Annica can account for our perception of continuity. Momentary change happens as a continuum of linked moments where each moment is so short that we don’t notice it and as one moment produces the next (dependent arising), the continuum of moments happens in an orderly fashion, giving us the impression that life is continuous. However, life is more like the frames of a film going through a projector a just the right speed to give us the illusion of a continuous sequence but when we check the film reel, we see that each frame is separate.

A true understanding of anicca can be achieved only from direct meditative insight. It is not something to believe or understand on an intellectual level, it is to be experienced through insight meditation.

Why is anicca important?

Gotama Buddha taught the concept of anicca as one of the ti-lakhanas (alongside dukkha and anattā) in his first sermon after his enlightenment. They are recorded Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta, meaning ‘first turning of the wheel of the Dhamma’. Although we all know that things change, often we act as if there are some things in life that are permanent, e.g. our love for another person, a cherished possession, or concepts such as peace and justice. When we forget about or ignore the impermanence things, we become attached and want those things to remain unchanged. This causes dukkha to arise. Understanding the true nature of existence, i.e. understanding the ti-lakhanas and their interconnectedness, is necessary to achieve enlightenment. Nibbāna is the only thing not subject to anicca; it is uncaused, unconditioned and always the same because it lies beyond existence and is not affected by it. In fact, it is not really ‘a thing’ at all.

Acceptance of impermanence

It is relatively easy to accept this idea of impermanence but harder to really bear in mind that things are impermanent when we make decisions in our lives. For example, people who buy the latest piece of hardware or software for their computer rarely reflect on how quickly it will become obsolete, and people starting love affairs rarely think about how the other person is bound to change from the one they fell in love with. Being aware of impermanence in these situations doesn’t necessarily mean not buying software or not falling in love (though it might), but it will at least add a tinge of realism to our decisions in these situations, and help to put things in their real perspective. The effect of this should be to make everyone happier in the long run.

We not only need to be aware of impermanence to gain wisdom in the Buddhist understanding, but to accept it. For example, parents may be acutely aware of the fact that their children are growing up, but it is still often difficult for them to adjust to this fact emotionally by giving up their attachment to having control over their children’s lives.

Bereavement is another effect of impermanence which it is very difficult for many people to adjust to, but accepting that a death has in fact occurred and that the world is no longer the same seems to be the key to it.

Annica in Mahayana thinking

The development of the concept of anicca in the Mahāyāna concept of emptiness / śūnyatā The Mahāyāna doctrine of ‘emptiness’ or ‘śūnyatā’ develops the idea of anattā by claiming that all things are empty of intrinsic existence and inherent nature. In the 1st century CE, the Indian scholar Nāgārjuna founded the Mādhyamaka philosophy. Mādhyamaka literally means ‘the middle way’ and refers to the middle way between the extreme views of believing that things really exist and believing that nothing exists at all. The ultimate truth of Mādhyamaka is emptiness (śūnyatā’) and interdependence (pratītyasamutpāda). Thich Nhat Hanh gives the example of a flower – it is full of everything cosmos and only empty of one thing: separate existence. The flower has no ‘self-nature’ and can only ‘inter-be’ as it is made up of only non-flower elements. If you remove the non-flower elements, there is not flower.

Mādhyamaka suggests two kinds of truth:

1. Conventional / relative truth is the way we see the world based on empirical evidence. We see things as unchanging, separate entities and this allows us to name them and have a practical understanding of them, e.g. there are flowers in our garden.

2. Ultimate truth is the enlightened view of how things truly are which tells us that there is no separate existence; everything is empty of independent existence and interdependent with everything else, e.g. the flower exists of non-flower elements.

How does Annica relate to the other two Lakshannas?

Impermanence is arguably the most important mark of existence as it is applicable to everything; to the whole movement of the universe and of human life. Impermanence permeates all aspects of life, even in inanimate objects, and thus is a constant reminder of the powerlessness of man. An understanding of impermanence motivates Buddhists to improve their quality of life; to achieve enlightenment. In the end Dukkha must be understood as just change and the self also as impermanent or anatta meaning with a soul.

Impermanence forms an important component of dukkha, either because things changing is directly painful to us, or because things we enjoy come to an end. Impermanence may also contribute to a sense that life is meaningless or to existential suffering, if we think that the only things that can give life meaning must be permanent. Ultimately, then, the only solution to impermanence is to find meaning and purpose in what is permanent, that is nirvana. This is expressed in a famous passage in the Udana in the Pali Canon:

“The basic mistake we make as regards impermanence, then, is not simply to put our faith in things that are impermanent, but to put our faith in impermanent things even when there is a permanent alternative. This 'permanence' may just consist in a different attitude to what is impermanent, though exactly how it should be interpreted is a matter of debate. “

Key Issues : Criticisms of impermanence

Criticisms of the doctrine of impermanence from non-Buddhists tend to come from two directions. On the one hand there are those who deny that all things except nirvana are impermanent. On the other are those who accept this point but deny that the recognition of impermanence is a positive move.

Those who would disagree that all things are impermanent would include most theists. They would claim that God is permanent and that there may also be other spiritual things that are permanent, such as the soul. There are arguments for the existence of the that Plato and other dualists have historically made.

Humanists with a materialist view are more likely to accept that all material things constantly change, but they may see the point of life as consisting in struggling against this rather than accepting it. For example, human ingenuity may be able to design more durable objects or even cheat human death. Too much acceptance of death may be seen as passive or morbid.

What do the Scholars say about Annica?

The Named Scholars

1 Buddhaghosa

His teaching is more traditionally Theravada suggesting that there is the mundane unconditioned world and the supramundane unconditioned Nibanna we must set as our goal. He said…

"all conditioned things are impermanent"

"all states... taken all together should be taken as materiality"

2 T W Rinpoche?

Rinpoche’s Mahayana assumes the idea of emptiness or Sunyatta, and that even the parts we are made of are in turn made of parts. That the everyday reality, hides a heavenly reality or realm and in turn a ‘truth realm’. This is what our true selves or Buddha nature is really, He says about the about Annica in the 3 marks of existence-

"the 5 senses are rather 5 sense conciousnesses"

"the essence of mind is naturally empty"

"the true nature, the dharmadhatu, that is itself peace"

Other Key Named Scholars

Rupert Gethin suggest we should not try to understand Annica from a Western view point.

“Buddhist thought understands change not in terms of a primary substantial essence remaining constant while its secondary qualities change, but solely in terms of the causal connectedness of different qualities. There is no primary substance to remain constant” (Rupert Gethin, The Foundation of Buddhism 1998)

Questions:

1. What does Annica mean?

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2. Explain how things might change at a gross level with examples.

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3. Explain, with examples why material things are impermanent at a Subtle?

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4. Explain with examples why human beings/life are/is impermanent?

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5. Explain why Annica is Important and how Annica relates to the other Marks of existence e.g. Dukkha?

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Anatta

Buddhists believe that when the Buddha reflected upon himself through meditation, he could not find any one thing that was un-changing within himself. There was no evidence of the underlying soul. Instead, the Buddha discovered that there are many things that combine to make a human being

What is anattā?

Anattā (anatman in Sanskrit) literally means ‘not-Self’ or ‘no-essence’. It is the personal expression of the doctrine of anicca - if everything is impermanent, then it follows that there can be no soul or permanent self. Everything in existence is impermanent: inanimate objects (e.g. books, your phone), animate objects (e.g. human beings, animals) and abstracts of the mind (e.g. thoughts and ideas). The moment something comes into existence, its impermanence is assured. This is because these objects are composed of many parts, and all compound things must have a beginning, middle and end, and at some point, these factors will naturally separate and disperse and the compound thing will cease to exist.

Anattā is linked to the Buddhist understanding of causality: everything in the universe (and the universe Anattā is linked to the Buddhist understanding of causality: everything in the universe (and the universe itself) comes into existence through the power of certain causes and conditions. This is known as conditioned existence. The implication of conditioned existence is that everything must therefore be impermanent - if there is a chain of causes and effects, this logically means that the causes must exist before their effects; and if this is so, it means that effects begin to exist from a particular point in time and before that point they do not exist. For example: (A) is a cherry seed that is planted watered and fertilised. (A) produces (B) which is a young sapling. Later, when all the growing conditions have been good, (B) produces (C), a cherry tree. When the tree is fully gown, the seed and sapling no longer exist, and at the point where the cherry seed is sown, the sapling and tree do not exist yet. In this way, things are caused by other things so they must have a beginning and an end and are, therefore, impermanent.

Conditioned things are subject to time. e itself) comes into existence through the power of certain causes and conditions. This is known as conditioned existence.

The implication of conditioned existence is that everything must therefore be impermanent - if there is a chain of causes and effects, this logically means that the causes must exist before their effects; and if this is so, it means that effects begin to exist from a particular point in time and before that point they do not exist. For example: (A) is a cherry seed that is planted watered and fertilised. (A) produces (B) which is a young sapling. Later, when all the growing conditions have been good, (B) produces (C), a cherry tree. When the tree is fully gown, the seed and sapling no longer exist, and at the point where the cherry seed is sown, the sapling and tree do not exist yet. In this

way, things are caused by other things so they must have a beginning and an end and are, therefore, impermanent. Conditioned things are subject to time.

Buddhist analysis of all things uses a process of reductionist analysis to logically reduce things down to their parts and show that things that exist can be fully accounted for by its parts without the need for an unchanging essence. There are only two types of reality: the infinitely small particles that join together to produce complex material things, and the infinitely small moments of consciousness that join together to produce our stream of consciousness. Everything that is complex is a result of the joining together of these parts and therefore do not have independent nor permanent existence. This is also true of a person. Furthermore, an essence is something we cannot perceive and, as we have no experience of it, its existence cannot be justified either logically or empirically.

The analogy of the tree

If we believe that things have an unchanging essence and that change affects only their secondary qualities Let’s take a healthy tree and chop a large branch off - do we accept that the tree remains the same tree? Let’s accept the tree’s existence as a particular tree does not depend on the continued existence of all its parts. In the case of a human being – if over time my moods, thoughts and feelings change – I still consider that my identity has not changed even though my mental state has. The true me is not dependent on the existence or non-existence of particular peace of mind

The problem with this idea

Take the example of the tree – how much can you chop down before it ceases to be a tree? And how much change can my body or mind undergo before you might say that my identity has changed – if it was possible and I had a brain transplant would I still be me?

Why is Annata important?

Annata may also be the most important in that it addresses the issue of identity of the person and the illusion of self as the main barrier to enlightenment. According to Buddha, ultimately nothing has an immutable, core essence. Everything is composed of energy combined in different physical, mental, emotional or spiritual structures to create the appearance of solidity and immutability on the worldly plane. But at the core of these structures, there is 'no-thing' there. This applies to our deepest selves as well, and this teaching of no-self is one of the core differences between Buddhism and other religions that posit an eternal soul or spirit. It is also what distinguishes Buddhist teachings on rebirth from other theories of reincarnation. We are an ever-changing spectrum of energies. When we see this for ourselves, we can let go of our attachment to our idea of ourselves as a limited self.

How does Annata relate to the other two Lakshannas?

Annica is the belief as everything in the universe changes, so too do human beings. People might believe that our personalities are fixed but this is a mistake. Our feelings, beliefs and characters, even our souls, change. Sometimes they change quickly and sometimes they change slowly, but they are not fixed. Anatta means ‘no self’.

Key Issues: What are the difficulties with Anatta

Annata is a difficult concept to understand especially for dualists like Greeks, Hindus and even monotheitic faiths like Christianity. The forcefulness of our intutions tha we exist and that 1st person pronouns like I me or myself are actually meaningful words. In the unit on Life after death in Philosophy we will consider this more. Philosophically the ‘continuity of identity’ from this to the afterlife has been a central philosophical argument for the existence of the soul.

This also comes up in the questions of King Milanda (see below) as a key issue.

What do the Scholars say about Annata?

The Named Scholars

1 Buddhaghosa

In his Path of Purification the Visuddhimagga (The 'great treatise' on Buddhist practice and Theravāda Abhidhamma written by Buddhaghosa approximately in the 5th Century in Sri Lanka- The emphasis in this system is on understanding the three marks of existence, dukkha, anatta, anicca) teaching is suggesting that as with Annica concerning the world so with the self also is mundane unconditioned and not yet in the supramundane unconditioned Nibanna which we must set as our goal. His seven steps are designed to help us consider via introspection of the senssations and thoughts that arise in our body through mediation called Vipassana that it is our grasping and clinging that is the origin of suffering and becoming unattached is the key to gaining enlightenment. Hhe argues the perception of not-self is the third of the "Eighteen Principal Insights" (mahaa-vipassanaa), of which the Visuddhi magga says

"One who maintains in being the contemplation of not-self abandons perception of self" and

"contemplation of not-self and contemplation of voidness are one in meaning and only the letter is different" (Vis. Ch. XX/p. 628) since

"one who maintains in being the contemplation of not-self abandons misinterpreting (abhinivesa)." On the development of the contemplation of not-self based on rise and fall given in the Visuddhimagga (Ch. XXI)

2 T W Rinpoche?

Rinpoche’s again following Mahayana idea of emptiness or Sunyatta, and that even the parts we are made of are in turn made of parts. That the everyday reality, hides a heavenly reality or realm and in turn a ‘truth realm’. This is what our true selves or Buddha nature is really, What he says about the about Annica as applies to Anatta in the 3 marks of existence-

"the 5 senses are rather 5 sense conciousnesses"

"the essence of mind is naturally empty"

"the true nature, the dharmadhatu, that is itself peace"

Other Key Named Scholars

Rupert Gethin quote on Annica again applies to anatta suggesting that we should not try to understand Annata or annica from a Western view point.

“Buddhist thought understands change not in terms of a primary substantial essence remaining constant while its secondary qualities change, but solely in terms of the causal connectedness of different qualities. There is no primary substance to remain constant” (Rupert Gethin, The Foundation of Buddhism 1998)

Gethin also claims that anatta is often mistranslated as meaning "not having a self", but in reality meant "not the self" Richard Gombrich also argues that the Buddha's descriptions of non-self in early Buddhist texts do not deny that there is a self. Thereavadan scholars today would disagree. Thanissaro Bhikkhu points to the Ananda Sutta (SN 44.10), where the Buddha stays silent when asked whether there is a 'self' or not.

Questions:

1. What does Annata mean?

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2. Explain how Annata is linked to the Buddhist beliefs about causality?

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3. Explain, what Rupert Gethin describes about the term anatta (consider the difference between primary and secondary changes)?

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4. Show an understanding of the analogy of a tree and link it to human beings:?

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5. Explain why Annata is Important and how Annata relates to the other Marks of existence e.g. Dukkha, Annica?

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The Five Aggregates

The Buddha introduced the concept of anattā in his second sermon, the Anatta-lakkhaṇa Sutta. He identified five khandas (‘skandhas’ in Sanskrit). These are material and mental factors which are ‘aggregates’ of ‘bundles’ of related states that make up a sentient being’s person and personality. They are ‘bundles of fuel’ which burn the ‘fires of dukkha’ as they lead us to identify ourselves as me’, ‘I’, or ‘myself’ - a permanent Self that does not exist - and consequently keeps us in saṃsāra. composed.

The 5 aggregates are:

1. Rūpa - form: the material aspect of existence, whether in the outer world or in the body of a living being. It is said to be made up of 4 basic elements or forces, and forms of subtle, sensitive matter derived from them. The four basics are solidity (earth), cohesion (water), heat (fire) and motion (wind). From the interaction of these, the body of flesh, blood and bones etc. is composed.

2. Vedanā - feeling: this is the hedonic tone or taste of any experience - pleasant, painful or neutral. It includes both sensations arising from the body and mental feelings of appiness, unhappiness or indifference.

3. Sannā - perception: this is what processes sensory and mental objects in order to classify and label them, e.g. ‘yellow’, ‘man’ or ‘woman’, ‘tree’, ‘fear’, etc. It is mental labelling, recognition and interpretation of objects and includes misunderstanding.

4. Sankhāras - mental formations: these are ‘constructing activities’ or ‘kammic activities’ which comprise of a number of processes which initiate action or direct, mould and give shape to character. The most characteristic one is ‘will’ or ‘volition’ which is linked to kamma. There are processes which are ingredients of all mind-states (e.g. sensory stimulation, attention), ones which intensify such states (e.g. joy, desire-to-do). Some of these are skilful (e.g. mindfulness) while others are unskilful (e.g. greed).

5. Vinnāna - (discriminative) consciousness: this includes basic awareness of a sensory or mental object, and the discrimination of its aspects or parts. It is of 6 types depending on which sense organ it is conditioned by: eye, ear, nose, tongue, body or mind-organ. It is essentially a mindset or mentality, some aspects of which alter from moment to moment, but others recur and are equivalent to a person’s character. Its form at any moment is set up by the other mental khandhas, but in turn it goes on to determine their pattern of arising, in a process of constant interaction.

"So, bhikkhus any kind of form whatever, whether past, future or presently arisen, whether gross or subtle, whether in oneself or external, whether inferior or superior, whether far or near, must with right understanding how it is, be regarded thus: 'This is not mine, this is not I, this is not myself.'

"Any kind of feeling whatever...

"Any kind of perception whatever...

"Any kind of determination whatever...

"Any kind of consciousness whatever, whether past, future or presently arisen, whether gross or subtle, whether in oneself or external, whether inferior or superior, whether far or near must, with right understanding how it is, be regarded thus: 'This is not mine, this is not I, this is not myself.'

Anatta-lakkhaṇa Sutta

Much of Buddhist practice is concerned with the purification, development and harmonious integration of the five aggregates that make up personality, through the cultivation of virtue and meditation. In time, however, the fivefold analysis is used to enable a meditator to gradually transcend the naive perception of a unitary ‘person’ or ‘Self’. In its place is a person as a cluster of changing physical and mental processes, or dhammas, thus undermining the grasping and attachment that cause dukkha.

1 Buddhaghosa

rom Buddhaghosa’s Visuddhimagga, or “Path of Purification,” about death he teaches that either we are bound up in our delusion of ‘self’ and must be reborn our we have learnt through Vipassana meditation to let go. Then like the Buddha at death we will reach parinibanna. Some think his ‘phenomenology’ became influenced by Mahayana. What do you think? He said…

“Events happen, deeds are done, but there is no individual doer thereof. Phenomena alone flow on—No other view than this is right. (XIX 20)” also

“For there is suffering, but none who suffers; Doing exists although there is no doer. Extinction is but no extinguished person; Although there is a path, there is no goer.” (XVI 90)

Other Key Named Scholars

In the Dhammapada it is told Buddha said, "You too shall pass away. Knowing this, how can you quarrel?" The basic sentiment here is every person's body will die so there is little point in fighting death.

Questions:

1. What does Annica mean?

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2. Explain how things might change at a gross level with examples.

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3. Explain, with examples why material things are impermanent at a Subtle?

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4. Explain with examples why human beings/life are/is impermanent?

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5. Explain why Annica is Important and how Annica relates to the other Marks of existence e.g. Dukkha?

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The Analogy of the chariot in the Questions of King Milinda

The ‘Milind-Panha’ is a discourse in the Pāli Canon which means ‘Questions of King Milinda’. It deals with the conversation that took place between the monk Nāgasena and King Milinda (the Indo-Greek king Menander I) in the form of questions and answers. In book II chapter 1.1, Nāgasena outlines the Buddhist concept of a person. His chariot example applies the reductionist analysis to inanimate objects, but he extends the example to cover animate objects - human beings - as well.

“You, sir, have been reared in great luxury as be- comes your noble birth. How did you come here, by foot or in a chariot?”

“In a chariot, venerable sir.”

“Then, explain sir, what that is. Is it the axle? Or the wheels, or the chassis, or reins, or yoke that is the chariot? Is it all of these combined, or is it something apart from them?”

“It is none of these things, venerable sir.”

“Then, sir, this chariot is an empty sound. You spoke falsely when you said that you came here in a chariot. You are a great king of India. Who are you afraid of that you don’t speak the

truth?”

[…]

“Venerable sir, I have spoken the truth. It is because it has all these parts that it comes under the term chariot.”

“Very good, sir, your majesty has rightly grasped the meaning. Even so it is because of the thirty-two kinds of organic matter in a human body and the five aggregates of being that I come under the term ‘Nāgasena’. As it was said by Sister Vajara in the presence of the Blessed One, ‘Just as it is by the existence of the various parts that the word “Chariot” is used, just so is it that when the aggregates of being are there we talk of a being’.”

Milind-Panha, Book II Chapter 1.1

Nāgasena shows how, just like the ‘chariot’ relies on having wheels, spokes, axels, etc. for its existence, a person relies on the khandhas. Since these khandhas are ever-changing physical and mental energies, there can be no permanent Self, soul or essence. Persons, like objects, are entirely dependent on the various processes that make them up. As such, our names are a ‘convenient label’ (What Nagasena called as ‘practical designation’) for a collection of parts functioning together (i.e. they refer to a conventional truth) but they do but they do not refer to a separate reality or essence (ultimate truth). As such, rebirth is not the reincarnation of an essence but the 5 khandas transforming at birth into its new form, according to its past kamma

Questions:

1. What is the Milind-Panha’?

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2. Explain how rebirth is about what Buddhists mean by the realms of existence?

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3. Explain, who is Nāgasena and who is Milinda?

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4. Explain, how Nagasena explains his idea that a person is a ‘practical designation’ for this ‘aggregate of parts’ (the khandhas)?

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5. Explain what then is rebirth acoprding to Nagasena if there is no atman or essential self.’?

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THE BUDDHIST THEORY LIFE AFTER DEATH

Buddhists believe in a cycle of death and rebirth called samsara. Through karma and eventual enlightenment, they hope to escape samsara and achieve nirvana, an end to suffering.

What Happens when someone dies?

When a person dies they are reborn into another life. Depending on the personal beliefs of the individual this can take different amounts of time. Tibetan Buddhists believe that there is an in-between stage known as the bardo which can take up to 49 days; Theravada Buddhists (from Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos and Cambodia) consider that rebirth can be immediate. Those who attain enlightenment (nirvana/nibbana) do not get reborn upon their death.

What can a person be reborn as?

Within Buddhism there are five or six possible forms that rebirth can take. These are from the highest to the lowest: gods, demi-gods, human, animal, hungry ghost and hell creature. Rebirth as a human being is considered to be particularly fortuitous as it is thought to be rare and it is held that one has the best chance for enlightenment when in this state of existence.

How is a person’s rebirth decided?

A person’s rebirth is dependent on their previous thoughts and actions. Each intentional action, good or bad, gives rise to karma/kamma. Good karma will allow for a good rebirth and vice versa. The last moments of a person’s life are important because their last thoughts and feelings will be a deciding factor in conditioning the first moment of the next life. Karma operates on an extremely large time scale in Buddhism. While a good death moment cannot cancel out any bad karma, it can be a head start to a better way of which is conducive to generating merit. This merit might eventually outweigh any bad karma. A common wish at funerals in Sri Lanka is: "May the deceased be reborn under Maitreya the future Buddha".

What does this mean in practice?

The Buddha's key teachings are the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path. Buddhists accept and follow these teachings in order to achieve enlightenment. There are differences within Buddhist traditions concerning how they understand ideas about life after death.

Theravada Buddhism

Theravada Buddhists strive to become arhats – enlightened people who have achieved Nirvana, who will not be born again. They teach that it is very likely that only monks and nuns can ever achieve this because:

the Buddha gave up his normal, earthly life and did eventually achieve release from samsara
in a normal household lifestyle there is too much to be attached to and to distract you from the ultimate aim of Nirvana

Mahayana Buddhism

Mahayana Buddhists strive to become a bodhisatta - a person who wants to become enlightened but who decides to be reborn and help others attain enlightenment.

Some Mahayana Buddhists believe that enlightenment can be achieved in one lifetime, and that this is possible by a layperson (someone who is not a monk or a nun). They make a vow stating that they will try to gain enlightenment and return life after life until every person has achieved enlightenment. They believe this because:

the Buddha was a bodhisatta in one of his previous lives
they accept different Buddhist sources as containing useful teachings about the afterlife and not just the Pali Canon, accepted by Theravada Buddhists
they believe that everyone can and will become a Buddha

What questions might non-Buddhists have about Buddhist beliefs on life after death?

What is the difference between energy and a soul?
If nothing permanent passes from one person to the next, then how can we say there is life after death?
What is the evidence for rebirth?
Is a belief in rebirth compatible with modern scientific views?
How do the Buddhist ideas of rebirth compare with ideas of reincarnation in other religions?

1 Buddhaghosa

From Buddhaghosa’s Visuddhimagga, or “Path of Purification,” about death he teaches that either we are bound up in our delusion of ‘self’ and must be reborn our we have learnt through Vipassana meditation to let go. Then like the Buddha at death we will reach parinibanna. Some think his ‘phenomenology’ became influenced by Mahayana. What do you think? He said…

“Events happen, deeds are done, but there is no individual doer thereof. Phenomena alone flow on—No other view than this is right. (XIX 20)” also

“For there is suffering, but none who suffers; Doing exists although there is no doer. Extinction is but no extinguished person; Although there is a path, there is no goer.” (XVI 90)

Other Key Named Scholars

In the Dhammapada it is told Buddha said,

"You too shall pass away. Knowing this, how can you quarrel?"

The basic sentiment here is every person's body will die so there is little point in fighting death.

Questions:

1. What is Samsara?

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2. Explain how rebirth is about what Buddhists mean by the realms of existence?

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3. Explain, with examples what Theravada believe about life after death?

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4. Explain, with examples what Mahayada believe about life after death?

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5. Explain Buddhaghosas view on life after death?

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THE BUDDHIST THEORY OF INTERDEPENDENCE

Buddhism distinguishes three types of suffering: ordinary suffering, the suffering of change and the suffering of conditioned existence. Dukkha links both to Annica and Anatta. It is in connect with Annata that Buddhist teaching on the five aggregates or the Skandhas develops.

Annata and Dependent Origination?

Anatta is linked to the Buddhist understanding that everything in the universe comes into existence through the power of certain causes and conditions

A causes B; X causes Y and so on

The implication of conditioned existence is that everything must therefore be impermanent.

What is Dependent Origination?

Dependent arising (paticcasamupada)

Paticcasamupada is a belief that is essential in fully understanding the Buddha’s Dhamma. This is because it leads to the realisation, or deep understanding, of the Three Marks of Existence, also known as the Three Universal Truths. This is the belief that everything that is in existence exists because other things are in existence. Therefore, everything is interconnected, and everything affects everyone.

Paticcasamupada also relates to the principle of conditionality. This means that everything, whether mental or physical, exists and occurs because of the presence of certain conditions. Everything is dependent on other things.

The cycle of paticcasamupada

Past causes, such as ignorance, can become part of a person's consciousness, which means their feelings may be affected in the present. For example, not understanding the nature of homelessness, but being aware and conscious of it, may mean a Buddhist feels sadness and actively seeks to aid those in need.

Present causes, such as cravings, are linked to future effects, such as ageing and death. For example, unhealthy cravings (such as too much bad food) may mean a person becomes ill in old age.

Paticcasamupada is a cycle, as a future effect could itself become a cause of another future effect. This can go on and on.

Paticcasamupada may influence the way a Buddhist behaves and have an impact on their ethical conduct. This is because paticcasamupada makes Buddhists aware that their actions may have consequences and therefore they may aim to treat others in a positive way. Treating others with loving kindness (also known as metta) will bring Buddhists closer to being reborn into a higher spiritual world (nibbana). This process is also known as karma.

Dependent arising expresses the Buddhist vision of the nature of reality

It says that everything arises, and continues, dependent on conditions

Nothing is permanent and unchanging

Dependent arising is often expressed in the in this simple formula:

“When this is, that is; This arising, that arises; When this is not, that is not; This ceasing, that ceases." Majjhima Nikaya

This basically expresses the view that life is an interdependent web of existence. For example, a tree depends on soil, rain and sunshine to survive. Everything else is also dependent on certain conditions to survive. Nothing is independent of supporting conditions, which means nothing lasts forever, including human beings. Everything is a constant process of change.

“All events and incidents in life are so intimately linked with the fate of others that a single person on his or her own cannot even begin to act. Many ordinary human activities, both positive and negative, cannot even be conceived of apart from the existence of other people….in reliance of the existence of others it becomes possible for the media to create fame or disrepute for someone. On your own you cannot create fame or disrepute no matter how loud you might shout. The closet you might get is to create an echo of your own voice” The 14th Dalai Lama

All of this links to the questions of King Milanda (see below)

Taking if further?

Harvey, explains

“Pratityasamutpada is an ontological principle; that is, a theory to explain the nature and relations of being, becoming, existence and ultimate reality.”

The idea of 12 stages us a latter development probably combining earlier lists or stages, The sequence of causes and effects from one lifetime to the next was only latterly systematsised by Buddhagosha in the 5th century. Then because of Buddhaghosa's vast influence in the development of Theravada scholasticism, this model has been very influential in the Theravada school ever since.

1 Buddhaghosa

The twelve nidanas were interpreted by Buddhaghosa (c. fifth century CE) of the Sri Lankan Mahavihara tradition as encompassing three successive lives, as outlined in his influential Visuddhimagga According to Buddhaghosa, the first two nidanas, namely ignorance (nescience) and motivation, relate to the previous life and forecast the destiny of the person. The third to the tenth nidanas relate to the present life, beginning with the descent of vijnana (consciousness, perception) into the womb, The last two nidanas (birth and death) represent the future lives conditioned by the present causes

Other Key Named Scholars

Gethin argues’

‘Within the Theravada Buddhist tradition, the twelve nidanas are considered to be the most significant application of the principle of dependent origination.’ Gethin, Rupert (1998), Foundations of Buddhism, Oxford University Press,

Bikkhu Bodhi Notes that

“The nikayas themselves do not give a systematic explanation of the nidana series.” but that “As an expository device, the commentarial tradition presented the factors as a linear sequence spanning over three lives”

Bhikkhu Bodhi, In the Buddha's Words. Wisdom Publications, 2005, page 313.

Nāgārjuna equates emptiness ‘Sunyatta’ with dependent origination in Mūlamadhyamakakārikā 24.18-19

Whatever arises dependently Is explained as empty. Thus dependent attribution Is the middle way.

Since there is nothing whatever, That is not dependently existent, For that reason there is nothing Whatsoever that is not empty.

Asanga (4th century CE) groups the twelve nidanas into four groups: 1-3 cause of dharmas; 4-7 dharmas; 8-10 cause of suffering; 11-12 suffering.

Following Asanga the Dzogchen tradition of Tibetan Buddhism, the concept of dependent origination is considered to be complementary to the concept of emptiness. Specifically, this tradition emphasizes the indivisibility of appearance and emptiness—also known as the relative and absolute aspects of reality. The Huayan ‘Buddha Nature’ school taught the doctrine of the mutual containment and interpenetration of all phenomena, as expressed in Indra's net. Hence Zen and Thich Nhat Hanh states everything ‘inter IS’.

Questions:

1. What is Dependent Origination?

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2. What is The cycle of Dependent Origination?

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3. Explain, how the Buddhist commentator Buddhagosha systematised the idea pf the cyple for Theravada Buddhists?

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4. Explain, with examples how Nargajuna, Asanga, an Huyan developed the Mahayada idea of dependent orgination?

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5. Explain what Thich Nhat Hanh means by everything ‘inter IS’?

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Assessment Questions (Choose one):

Explore the Buddhist teaching of the Three Marks of Existence. (8 marks)

OR

Assess the importance of the Three Marks of Existence. (12 marks)

12 MK Exam Technique:

D: Define: Explain / reword the question and give a single sentence of your considered ‘impartial’ assessment of the arguments.

A: Assess: Explain why the teaching / viewpoint could be viewed as important / unimportant, strong / weak etc using technical term, quotes and demonstrating thorough and accurate knowledge of the topic.

N: Negate: Write an opposing argument, in detail, using technical terms, quotes and demonstrating thorough and accurate knowledge of the topic. You should also explain why your opposing argument could be flawed.

E: Evaluate: Explain your own judgement based on the arguments you have given to support or negate the viewpoint / Argument / quote. Come to a clear, justified, logical but Brief conclusion.

Remember, you are marked on two assessment objectives in an 12 MK 4 A01, 8 A02 :

AO1: Select and demonstrate clearly relevant knowledge and understanding through the use of evidence, examples and correct language and terminology appropriate to the course of study.

AO2: Sustain a critical line of argument and justify a point of view

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