Learners may demonstrate knowledge and understanding through the use of some of the following ideas:
• learners might outline the role of meditation in Buddhist practice, possibly with reference to the eightfold path, and what leads to different beliefs, teachings and practices
• nibbana as the goal of Buddhist practice will probably be explained, possibly with reference to the idea of the cessation of suffering (dukkha); different ways of explaining this goal might be outlined
• the example of the Buddha achieving enlightenment whilst meditating beneath the Bodhi tree might be offered and different ways of interpreting this discussed
• the relationship between meditation and the other sections of the Noble Eightfold Path might be mentioned, namely wisdom and ethics, and the ways in which these three complement each other could be developed
• learners might mention the different types of meditation such as samatha and vipassana, or those from specific schools such as Pure Land Buddhists’ nembutsu, and zazen and koan meditation in Zen
• some learners might make reference to the difference in goals between (in the Theravada tradition) monastic and lay practitioners and what causes this difference; the monks will be aiming for enlightenment, however the lay practitioners will merely be looking for a better rebirth and reduction in suffering
Learners may demonstrate evaluation and analysis through the use of some of the following arguments:
• candidates might argue that at an ultimate level nibbana is the goal for all Buddhists, and therefore all meditative practices lead to this point
• candidates may also discuss how meditation might have the goal of developing wisdom and ethics as part of the eight fold path
• through an explanation of the different approaches to meditation some candidates may show that at a conventional level meditation seems to have differing aims:
• some might argue that it is a common misconception that Pure Land Buddhist practitioners do not aim for nibbana, but instead aim for rebirth in the Pure Land. Technically practitioners aim for rebirth in the Pure Land in order to practise and achieve nibbana
• some candidates might discuss the idea of ‘all Buddhists’ and show that it is only some who focus on the ultimate goal of nibbana, for example in the Theravada tradition only monks aim for enlightenment, not the laity.
• some candidates may wish to outline the importance of personalised practice in Buddhism, and how each Buddhist will have specific goals for his or her meditation practice, tailored to their personality and needs. This may or may not be the attainment of nibbana.
Buddhists might argue that the only goal of meditation is nibbana/nirvana. However, some might argue that this is a limited view of both meditation itself and the goal of meditation.
Buddhist might agree with this statement because the Buddha achieved enlightenment whilst meditating beneath the Bodhi tree. They might point to the fact that meditation practice is in this model and therefore its goal is to achieve enlightenment. From the Buddha’s original practice various forms of meditation have developed, latterly these have been grouped in Samatha (calm meditation) and vipassana (insight meditation). Samatha meditation includes the Buddha’s teaching on anapanasati or mindfulness of breathing in and out. This technique is designed to calm the mind so that one can control the mind and overcome unwholesome thoughts or the defilements of craving, both of which lead to nirvana. Vipassana however, is the development of insight. This is done through meditating on a kasina or object of concentration. Through this higher levels of concentration can be developed leading to nirvana. Many Buddhists would therefore argue that all of these forms of meditation develop a practitioners powers of concentration and insight into the Buddha’s teachings. However, Dr Rahula suggests that Samatha meditation has nothing to do with nirvana. He states that this form of meditation existed before the Buddha and although not excluded from Buddhist meditation it is not essential for realising nirvana. Gethin however, disagrees. He suggests that the mind is fundamentally clear and pure but they have become stained by the defilements of craving. Therefore this basic method is to restore the mind to something of its original state of clarity and stillness. This clarity of mind provides the opportunity for seeing into the operation of the defilements and the minds true nature.
However, it can be argued that in Theravada Buddhism the foundation of meditation is in the eight fold path. Here right effort, right mindfulness and right concentration are practised. However, within this context they are practised in order to overcome suffering and/or craving rather than with the goal of nibbana/nirvana. For example, right effort is all about putting effort into the four great endeavours as shown in the Anguttara Nikaya. These are to prevent the arising of unarisen unwholesome states. To abandon unwholesome states that have already arisen. To arose wholesome states that have not yet arisen. To maintain and perfect wholesome states already arisen. It can be argued that this has more to do with overcoming the suffering created by negative thoughts associated with craving, ignorance, hatred and greed rather than attaining enlightenment. It can however, be argued that the Buddha taught that overcoming craving is enlightenment. Similarly right mindfulness is about developing bare attention. Bhikkhu Bodhi describes this as a detached observation of what is happening within us and around us in the present moment. This is a way of coming back to the present without getting swept away by tides of distracting thoughts. For Bhikkhu Bodhi this is not enlightenment. However, Dr Rahula and Thich Nhat Hanh would disagree. Dr Rahula suggests that mindfulness meditation develops the insight necessary to liberate the mind. He suggests that the most important discourse on this comes from the Buddha in the Satipatthana sutta in the Digha Nikaya. This focuses the practioner on the body, feelings, mind and teachings so that one can gain insight. For Thich Nhat Hanh the detached observation Bodhi describes is enlightenment as it is the development of bodhichitta or the enlightened mind.
Nevertheless in all forms of Buddhism meditation is used and its goal is enlightenment for example in Zen Buddhism Zazen meditation is used. Zazen is much like that described in right mindfulness. It is allow the development of bare attention. Allow thoughts to drift through one’s mind within attaching anything other than detached observation to these thoughts. Both Bodhidharma and Dogen describe this state of mind as the enlightenment even if a practioner only gets a brief flash or glimpse of it. However, both see that this may only happen whilst meditating. This was also the Buddha’s concern with the ascetic practices he followed. Therefore, mindfulness could only be seen as true enlightenment if it is a permanent change to a practioners mind. Even the most ardent advocates for mindfulness such as Thich Nhat Hanh would agree that this is not a permanent change in disposition and therefore, this form of meditation can lead to flashes of enlightenment but not necessarily to fully enlightenment. Despite this the benefits of mindfulness to the individual, their mental state and their conduct mean that this form of meditation is very important and one could even argue that the pacifying of the mind and conduct are a goal in themselves.
Despite this view there is a difference in goals between (in the Theravada tradition) monastic and lay practitioners. For example, the monks will be aiming for enlightenment, however the lay practitioners will merely be looking for good karma, a better rebirth and a reduction in suffering. Melford Spiro suggests that there are three types of Buddhism and that meditation helps develop a certain goal in each type. The three types are apotropaic, kammic and nibbanic. Apotropaic Buddhists seek protection for themselves and their communities and therefore meditation is an aid to overcoming unwholesome thoughts which lead to good moral conduct. Kammic Buddhists use meditation to develop good kamma whereas only nibbanic Buddhists would seek enlightenment. As the majority of Buddhists are lay Buddhists is can be argue that the majority of meditation would fit in with apotropaic and kammic Buddhism.
Therefore Buddhists might see that the ultimate goal of meditation is nirvana. But meditation itself is used for more than just its ultimate goal.