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Abortion
A medical procedure to terminate a pregnancy, normally before the foetus can survive independently.
Absolute ethics
An ethical theory such as Kantianism which argues that x should
always be done, regardless of circumstance.
Act Utilitarianism:
Argues that one should always perform that individual act which will lead to the greatest balance of good over evil. Its main supporter was Jeremy Bentham.
Adultery
A married person engaging in voluntary sexual intercourse with a person who is not their spouse.
Animal experimentation
The use of non-human animals in experiments for medical or scientific progress.
Applied ethics
The application of normative ethical principles to practical situations and moral dilemmas.
Aretaic Ethics:
Another name for virtue ethics (q.v.), from the Greek, arête.
Categorical Imperative:
Kant’s guide to duty which is morally obligatory, hence categorical. q.v. Principle of Universalisation.
Cloning
The process produces genetically identical individuals of an organism, or copies of cells or DNA fragments which is also known as ‘somatic transfer’.
Conscience:
The faculty said to enable us to make moral decisions, and to judge our own and the actions by others. Some have described this as the voice of God, or otherwise innate, but for Aquinas it is a species of practical reason.
Deontological Ethics:
Any ethical theory which argues that the rightness of an act lies in doing the right thing because it is the right thing in itself – regardless of any consequences.
‘Designer’ babies
Common term used to describe a human embryo which has been genetically modified. This would be following guidelines set by the parent or scientist, to produce desirable traits such as eliminating a genetic disorder.
Disembodied Existence:
Purely spiritual existence, usually post-mortem.
Divine Command Theory:
The theory that something is right simply because God commands it. Often contrasted with the belief that God commands what is right, Divine Command theory was rejected by Aquinas, Luther and many others.
Doctrine of the Mean:
Aristotle’s belief that the virtuous way depended on determining the correct way between opposing vices, as courage is a sort of mean between foolhardiness and cowardice. The mean is not arithmetical but always relative to the agent and her circumstances.
Embryo research
Scientific research using embryonic cells, for example stem cell research.
Emotivism:
The theory advanced principally by Logical Positivists that ethical sentences merely evince emotions and cannot be justified. Named the ‘Killing – boo!’ theory by Winston Barnes. The emotion need not be felt by the one making the statement.
Ethics
This term comes from the Greek word ethikos, which in its root form (ethos) means custom or habit. It refers to a branch of moral philosophy that aims to determine the meaning of right and wrong, and subsequently the correct way to act.
Ethical Naturalism:
A meta-ethical theory which holds that ‘good’ is a synonym for a purely natural quality, such as pleasure.
Ethics of Duty:
The belief that right living means always performing one’s rationally determined duty. The term is often used to describe Kantian ethics.
Eudaimonia:
There is no exact translation of this Greek term, the goal of Aristotle’s virtues ethics. It is commonly translated as ‘flourishing’ or ‘happiness’ and has elements of both.
Hedonic Calculus:
Bentham’s attempt to construct a system which would determine, on strict utilitarian principles, precisely the right action to take in any circumstance that might arise. The experiment failed.
Hypothetical Imperative:
Kant contrasts this with the Categorical Imperative. The latter is obligatory, the hypothetical is not. If I wish to go to university, there are steps I must take, but there is no obligation to go to university.
Intuitionism:
The ethical theory, associated with G.E. Moore, that one simply intuits the good. It is a category of mind.
Meta ethics:
Considers the meaning and justification of ethics. Normative Ethics (q.v.) attempts to show how we should live, while meta ethics considers the meaning of terms such as ‘good’ and ‘right’.
Moral Evil:
Evil brought about, directly or indirectly, as a result of human choices.
Moral Responsibility:
The idea that persons are responsible for their actions, except in cases of immaturity or mental illness etc., and thus are open to praise or blame.
Natural Evil:
Evil found in nature, such as plagues, earthquakes, hurricanes etc. Sometimes referred to as suffering, this is evil which is not the consequence of specific human action.
Natural Law:
‘Right reason in accordance with nature’. This believes that by reason alone we can determine which actions are good or bad for human flourishing.
Naturalism
A meta-ethical view that morality is defined by facts about nature or human nature.
Negative Utilitarianism:
Instead of seeking to maximise pleasure, this seeks to minimise suffering. Peter Singer is a major advocate.
Non-naturalism
The meta-ethical view that knowledge is a factual property known through means outside ‘naturalism’, for example by intuition or God’s commands.
Normative Ethics:
Ethical theories which inform people how they should act.
Preference Utilitarianism:
Adopted by John Stuart Mill and Peter Singer, argues that we should seek always the good we would rationally prefer rather than simply our selfish desires.
Prescriptivism:
Developed by R.M. Hare, argues that ethical norms should be seen not as verifiable propositions but prescriptions for behaviour. They are thus open to logical analysis for their consistency with other prescriptions.
Principle of Universalisation:
Otherwise known as the First Form of the Categorical Imperative (Kant). It argues that we should act only on that maxim which we can at the same time will to be universal law.
Principle of Utility:
Holds that we should so act as to seek the greatest balance of good over evil. This should be the sole guide to action. Jeremy Bentham modified the principle as ‘the greatest good of the greatest number’ but other utilitarian thinkers rejected the modification, not least because it smuggles in a controversial second principle of justice.
Proportionalism
Idea based on the premise that the Natural Law could be laid aside if there was a proportional reason for doing so, eg greater good could be served by doing it, in that particular scenario.
Relativist Ethics:
This holds that there are no moral absolutes and every judgement is relative to such things as culture and circumstance. This should not be confused with Situation Ethics, which does believe in the moral absolute of always doing the loving thing (Fletcher) or requires that one must in every circumstance will what is right (Temple), while being situational in application.
Rule Utilitarianism:
Argues that we should always follow the rule general adherence to which will lead to the greatest balance of good over evil. John Stuart Mill supported this, especially in On Liberty.
Substance Dualism:
The idea that body and soul(psyche) are wholly different substances, of different nature. The view is found most strongly in Descartes, but rejected by Anscombe, Geach and Ryle, among others.
Subjectivism:
The ethical view that the right-making feature of an ethical utterance is that I have chosen it. There is no other criterion. The view is found especially in the views of existentialists, notably Jean-Paul Sartre.
Teleological Ethics:
Any ethical theory – such as Utilitarianism – which argues the goodness or badness of an action according to its consequences. (q.v. Deontological Ethics)
Summum Bonum:
Term used by Kant to indicate a (post-mortem) state combining the highest virtue with the highest happiness.
Utilitarianism:
A teleological (consequentialist) ethical philosophy which attempts to resolve the issue of dilemma in choices by offering the single principle that we should seek always the greatest balance of good over evil.
Verification:
Devised by the Vienna Circle, argues that any proposition which is not a tautology or not empirically verifiable is meaningless. The strong verification principle demanded conclusive verification, but as this ruled out all science (as no sense experience can ever be conclusively proven), later verificationists, notably A.J. Ayer, substituted weak verification, which demands only that one needed to state what experience would make the truth of the proposition probable.
Voluntary euthanasia and assisted suicide
Euthanasia literally translates from the Greek meaning ‘a good death’. It describes a medical procedure by which either a person terminates his or her own life because of extreme pain or suffering, or the life of another person is either allowed to come to an end or is brought to an end with the assistance of others, because of a critical medical condition. ‘Voluntary’ means there is consent and a choice made by the person.
Virtue Ethics:
Also known as Aretaic ethics, emphasises the importance of being a good person, going beyond merely performing good acts. Disposition and character matter is assessing the goodness of a person. Aristotle is perhaps the most famous example, together with St. Thomas Aquinas. Modern advocates include Alisdair MacIntyre, Robert C. Solomon, Elizabeth Anscombe and Martha Nussbaum
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