Act and Rule Utilitarianism
Act Utilitarianism states that a person’s action is only morally right if it produces as much happiness as any other action the person could take at that time. Rule utilitarianism can be differentiated into two different types 1. Strong states that rules established through utilitarian principles should never be broken 2.Weak The rules should always be considered foremost, but may be overridden in certain situations
Act Utilitarianism
A version of utilitarianism according to which the rightness or wrongness of individual acts are calculated by the amount of happiness resulting from those acts. (Considers the consequence of each individual action)
Bentham, Jeremy
Jeremy Bentham, philosopher, economist and social reformer (1748-1832), developed the theory known as Act Utilitarianism. He developed the principle of utility or the greatest happiness principle to help people achieve happiness. It states that an action is right if it produces the greatest happiness for the greatest number. He also devised the hedonic calculus as a means of measuring pleasure.
Bentham’s Utilitarianism
Bentham believed that pain and pleasure were two sovereign masters which nature has placed mankind under the governance of. The hedonic calculus was devised to measure the consequences of an action to know what will cause pleasure or pain, weighing an action against 7 factors.
Consequentialism
the consequences of an action solely determine whether it is the right thing to do
Eudaimonia
A term used by Aristotle literally meaning 'good spirit' and is translated as 'happiness' or 'well-being'.
Greatest Happiness Principle
A calculation used in utilitarian theory to assess the best course of action to take.
Happiness
The term used by Utilitarians to describe pleasure which is ‘good’.
Harm principle
Principle created by John Stuart Mill. He argued that the only reason power can be rightfully exercised over a member of a civilised community, against their will, is to prevent harm to others.
Hedonism
The action of seeking pleasure and avoiding pain
Higher and Lower pleasures
Mill claimed Bentham’s act utilitarianism was too hedonistic and focused on animalistic pleasures unduly. Mill claimed ‘it’s better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a pig satisfied’. So quantity of pleasure is not better than quality. For Mill, the higher pleasures are intellectual and social, those things that as human beings we are able to experience. The lower pleasures – food, sex and sleep – are pleasures but are not as important. Mill argues that all ‘competent judges’ when given a choice between the two would prefer the higher pleasures. When Mill refers to higher pleasures, he is referring to happiness in a broader sense than Bentham. Mill is to some extent thinking of Eudaimonia – the idea of happiness and human flourishing.
Higher pleasures
Term used by J.S. Mill to distinguish between different forms of happiness. Higher pleasures are superior pleasures and are pleasures of the mind: intellectual pursuits, spiritual reflection etc. They are superior to lower pleasures. He believed that the quality of happiness produced by an act was more important than the quantity.
Lower pleasures
Term used by J.S. Mill to distinguish between different forms of happiness. Lower pleasures are inferior pleasures and are pleasures of the body, satisfying the bodily need for food, water, sleep, etc. He believed that the quality of happiness an act produced was more important than the quantity
Hedonic Calculus
A system for working out the amount of pleasure or pain involved in a course of action 7 criteria
Purity- Meaning that an act is not followed by pain
Remoteness How near or far the pleasure is
Intensity How deep the pleasure is
Certainty How certain or uncertain the pleasure is
Extent How universal the pleasure is, how many people are affected
Duration How long the pleasure will last
Fecundity Meaning the chance that it will produce more pleasure
Impartial spectator
Someone who doesn't count their own preferences as more important than the preferences of others - someone who can take an objective rather than subjective view.
Ideal Utilitarianism
Ideal utilitarians NOT seek to maximise pleasure, minimise pain or fulfil preferences. Historically advocated by G. E. Moore ideal util. argues the right action is the one that maximises certain intrinsically, non-consequentially, good qualities. Ideal util. the polar opposite of Bentham as Bentham argues that the only morally significant feature of any action is how people feel about the consequences, whether they feel pleasure or pain.
Mill, J.S.
John Stuart Mill (1806-1873), British philosopher, political economist, civil servant and Member of Parliament, was an influential liberal thinker of the 19th century. He was a Utilitarian, following an ethical theory developed by Jeremy Bentham (his mentor). His form of Utilitarianism was, however, very different from Bentham's in two main ways. Firstly, he believed that the quality of pleasure an act produced was more important than the quantity. Secondly, unlike Bentham who was an Act Utilitarian, he appears to have been a Rule Utilitarian.
Mill’s Utilitarianism
He wanted to define pleasure with an emphasis on quality rather than quantity. He does this by distinguishing between higher pleasures, associated with the mind, and the lower pleasures, associated with the body.
Negative Utilitarianism
Negative utilitarianism seeks to reduce the amount of suffering the world instead of increasing pleasure. It is thought harm is more important to avoid that it is to achieve happiness, someone would rather ensure against pain before pursuing happiness. David Pearce on the logic behind negative util says 'No amount of happiness or fun enjoyed by some organisms can notionally justify the indescribably horrors of Auschwitz. Nor can it outweigh the sporadic frightfulness of pain and despair that it occurs every second of every day' Negative utilitarians put much hope in technological developments with genetic engineering and pharmaceuticals to rid the planet of suffering. But the theory stands or falls on whether this can be converted into concrete change. A strengths of negative util is that there are more ways to do harm than good, and therefore the focus should be on avoiding harm. Yet its logical conclusion is that in order to avoid suffering the most effective way is to ensure the painless death of mankind! The experience machine objection to Neg Util is that if the aim is just to avoid pain, does it matter if we are no more than brains in vats?
Naturalistic Fallacy
Just because we do desire pleasure doesn't mean that we should. The idea that what is found in nature is good is does not follow. The claim that any reductive explanation of good, in terms of natural properties such as pleasant or desirable, is false. The term was introduced by British philosopher G. E. Moore in his 1903 book Principia Ethica. For example it was the basis for social Darwinism, the belief that helping the poor and sick to die is a good thing! The term naturalistic fallacy is sometimes used to describe the deduction of an ought from an is (the is–ought problem) and is a criticism of Utilitarianism.
Quantitative
Concerned with the amount. Bentham's Utilitarianism is thought of as Qualitative Utilitarianism.
Qualitative
Concerned with the value and nature. Mill's Utilitarianism is thought of as Qualitative Utilitarianism.
Preference Utilitarianism
A utilitarian theory interested in the best consequences for those involved rather than what creates the most pleasure and the least pain. (The idea that the outcome that produces the best result based upon preference has to be the right course of action to take) Preference utilitarianism was developed by Singer/Hare -
Partiality
Utilitarianism argues that we should do whatever action leads to the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people. It does not consider an individual’s particular emotional ties to their family or friends as relevant to that ethical calculation. E.g most parents would save their child’s life over the life of two random people. However, Utilitarianism would not regard that as the most moral action as saving two rather than one would lead to the greatest happiness. Therefore, Utilitarianism seems to be against the foundation of familial relationships which is at least a practical impediment to its implantability because family relationships define so much of our social existence. It is arguably also a conceptual flaw since family is intuitively thought of as a good thing.
Rule Utilitarianism
A version of utilitarianism in which general rules are assessed for the happiness-making properties rather than individual decisions. Actions are therefore 'right' or 'wrong' depending on whether they conform to a happiness-making rule, not because of their individual effects. (Often associated with John Stuart Mill) (Considers the consequences of past actions to form a rule to guide a present action)
The Principle of Utility
The rightness and wrongness of an action is determined by its utility or usefulness
Strong Rule Utilitarianism
believes rules made by the application of the principle of utility should never be broken - guarantees happiness for society
Utility
The idea of ‘usefulness’ that we should do whatever is useful in increasing overall good and decreasing evil
Weak Rule Utilitarianism
believes that rules can be sometimes broken if breaking the rule would provide more happiness than keeping it